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Wang Z, Li J, Lin G, He Z, Wang Y. Metal complex-based liposomes: Applications and prospects in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. J Control Release 2022; 348:1066-1088. [PMID: 35718211 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Metal complexes are of increasing interest as pharmaceutical agents in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics, while some of them suffer from issues such as limited water solubility and severe systemic toxicity. These drawbacks severely hampered their efficacy and clinical applications. Liposomes hold promise as delivery vehicles for constructing metal complex-based liposomes to maximize the therapeutic efficacy and minimize the side effects of metal complexes. This review provides an overview on the latest advances of metal complex-based liposomal delivery systems. First, the development of metal complex-mediated liposomal encapsulation is briefly introduced. Next, applications of metal complex-based liposomes in a variety of fields are overviewed, where drug delivery, cancer imaging (single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)), and cancer therapy (chemotherapy, phototherapy, and radiotherapy) were involved. Moreover, the potential toxicity, action of toxic mechanisms, immunological effects of metal complexes as well as the advantages of metal complex-liposomes in this content are also discussed. In the end, the future expectations and challenges of metal complex-based liposomes in clinical cancer therapy are tentatively proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaomeng Wang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
| | - Jinbo Li
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
| | - Guimei Lin
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University, Jinan 250000, PR China
| | - Zhonggui He
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China.
| | - Yongjun Wang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China.
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Peng Z, Nie K, Song Y, Liu H, Zhou Y, Yuan Y, Chen D, Peng X, Yan W, Song J, Qu J. Monitoring the Cellular Delivery of Doxorubicin-Cu Complexes in Cells by Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy. J Phys Chem A 2020; 124:4235-4240. [PMID: 32364735 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.0c00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the prodrug research field, information obtained from traditional end point biochemical assays in drug effect studies could provide neither the dynamic processes nor heterogeneous responses of individual cells. In situ imaging microscopy techniques, especially fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), could fulfill these requirements. In this work, we used FLIM techniques to observe the entry and release of doxorubicin (Dox)-Cu complexes in live KYSE150 cells. The Dox-Cu complex has weaker fluorescence signals but similar lifetime values as compared to the raw Dox, whose fluorescence could be released by the addition of biothiol compound (such as glutathione). The cell viability results indicated that the Dox-Cu compound has a satisfactory killing effect on KYSE150 cells. The FLIM data showed that free doxorubicin was released from Dox-Cu complexes in cytoplasm of KYSE150 cells and then accumulated in the nucleus. After 90 min administration, the fluorescence lifetime signals reached 1.21 and 1.46 ns in the cytoplasm and nucleus, respectively, reflecting the transformation and transportation of Dox-Cu complexes. In conclusion, this work provides a satisfactory example for the research of prodrug monitored by FLIM techniques, expanding the useful applications of FLIM technique in drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Peng
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Kaixuan Nie
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Yiwan Song
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Hao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Yingxin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Yufeng Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Danni Chen
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Xiao Peng
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Wei Yan
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Jun Song
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
| | - Junle Qu
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, P. R. China
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Wang S, Liu C, Wang C, Ma J, Xu H, Guo J, Deng Y. Arsenic trioxide encapsulated liposomes prepared via copper acetate gradient loading method and its antitumor efficiency. Asian J Pharm Sci 2018; 15:365-373. [PMID: 32636954 PMCID: PMC7327756 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajps.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 11/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, arsenic trioxide (ATO) was encapsulated in liposomes via copper acetate (Cu(OAc)2) gradients and high entrapment efficiency of over 80% was obtained. The average particle size and the zeta-potential of the liposomes were detected to be 115.1 ± 29.1 nm and −21.97 ± 0.6 mV, respectively. The TEM images showed rod-like precipitates in the inner aqueous phase, which was supposed be due to the formation of insoluble ATO—Cu complex. The in vitro drug release of ATO—Cu liposomes exhibited a sustained release over 72 h, and the release rates decreased with the increase of the pH of release media. Pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution studies of ATO liposomes showed significantly reduced plasma clearance rate, increased AUC0–12h and T1/2, and improved tumor distribution of As compared to iv administration of ATO solution. The anti-tumor effect of ATO loaded liposomes to S180 tumor-bearing mice was significantly improved with a tumor inhibition rate of 61.2%, meanwhile the toxicity of encapsulated ATO was greatly decreased. In conclusion, ATO can be effectively encapsulated into liposomes by remote loading method via Cu(OAc)2 gradients; the co-administration of ATO and Cu(II) via liposomal formulation may find wide applications in the treatment of various tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoning Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Benxi 117004, China
| | - Chunxiu Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, China
| | - Cunyang Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Benxi 117004, China
| | - Jia Ma
- School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Benxi 117004, China
| | - Hui Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, China
| | - Jianbo Guo
- Shanxi Institute for Food and Drug Control, Xi'an 710065, China
| | - Yihui Deng
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, China
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Li T, Cipolla D, Rades T, Boyd BJ. Drug nanocrystallisation within liposomes. J Control Release 2018; 288:96-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Hwang JY, Li Z, Loh XJ. Small molecule therapeutic-loaded liposomes as therapeutic carriers: from development to clinical applications. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra09854a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, various methods and mechanisms for encapsulation of small therapeutic molecules in liposomes for targeted delivery and triggered release, as well as their potential in the clinical uses, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Yoon Hwang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- National University of Singapore
- Singapore 117576
- Singapore
| | - Zibiao Li
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE)
- Singapore 117602
- Singapore
| | - Xian Jun Loh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE)
- Singapore 117602
- Singapore
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- National University of Singapore
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Liposomes as carriers of hydrophilic small molecule drugs: Strategies to enhance encapsulation and delivery. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 123:345-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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He Y, Zhang L, Zhu D, Song C. Design of multifunctional magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles/mitoxantrone-loaded liposomes for both magnetic resonance imaging and targeted cancer therapy. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:4055-66. [PMID: 25187709 PMCID: PMC4149452 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s61880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-targeting multifunctional liposomes simultaneously loaded with magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) as a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent and anticancer drug, mitoxantrone (Mit), were developed for targeted cancer therapy and ultrasensitive MRI. The gonadorelin-functionalized MION/Mit-loaded liposome (Mit-GML) showed significantly increased uptake in luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone (LHRH) receptor overexpressing MCF-7 (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7) breast cancer cells over a gonadorelin-free MION/Mit-loaded liposome (Mit-ML) control, as well as in an LHRH receptor low-expressing Sloan-Kettering HER2 3+ Ovarian Cancer (SK-OV-3) cell control, thereby leading to high cytotoxicity against the MCF-7 human breast tumor cell line. The Mit-GML formulation was more effective and less toxic than equimolar doses of free Mit or Mit-ML in the treatment of LHRH receptors overexpressing MCF-7 breast cancer xenografts in mice. Furthermore, the Mit-GML demonstrated much higher T2 enhancement than did Mit-ML controls in vivo. Collectively, the study indicates that the integrated diagnostic and therapeutic design of Mit-GML nanomedicine potentially allows for the image-guided, target-specific treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingna He
- Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Hebei University of Chinese Medicine, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Linhua Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Material of Tianjin, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Dunwan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Material of Tianjin, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Cunxian Song
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Material of Tianjin, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
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Legut M, Lipka D, Filipczak N, Piwoni A, Kozubek A, Gubernator J. Anacardic acid enhances the anticancer activity of liposomal mitoxantrone towards melanoma cell lines - in vitro studies. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:653-68. [PMID: 24489469 PMCID: PMC3904835 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s54911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper describes a novel formulation of antineoplastic drug: mitoxantrone loaded into liposomal carriers enriched with encapsulated anacardic acid in the liposomal bilayer using a vitamin C gradient. Anacardic acid is a potent epigenetic agent with anticancer activity. This is the first liposomal formulation to combine an actively encapsulated drug and anacardic acid. The liposomes were characterized in terms of basic parameters, such as size, zeta potential, optimal drug-to-lipid ratio, loading time and temperature, and stability at 4°C and in human plasma in vitro. The formulation was found to be stable, and the loading process was rapid and efficient (drug-to-lipid ratio of up to 0.3 with over 90% efficiency in 5 minutes). The cytotoxicity of these formulations was assessed using the human melanoma cell lines A375 and Hs294T and the normal human dermal fibroblast line. The results showed that anacardic acid and to a smaller extent vitamin C significantly increased the cytotoxicity of the drug towards melanoma compared to ammonium sulfate liposomes. On the other hand, vitamin C and anacardic acid both protected normal cells from damage caused by the drug. The formulation combining anacardic acid, vitamin C, and mitoxantrone showed promising results in terms of cytotoxicity and cytoprotection. Therefore, it has potential for anticancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Legut
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Dominik Lipka
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Nina Filipczak
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Adriana Piwoni
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Arkadiusz Kozubek
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jerzy Gubernator
- Department of Lipids and Liposomes, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
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Gubernator J. Active methods of drug loading into liposomes: recent strategies for stable drug entrapment and increased in vivo activity. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2011; 8:565-80. [PMID: 21492058 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2011.566552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The use of liposomes increases the therapeutic index of many drugs, and also offers drug targeting and controlled release. The commercial impact of liposomes is strengthened by the invention of several active drug encapsulation methods, allowing the encapsulation of several weak base or weak acid drugs with very high drug-to-lipid ratios. AREAS COVERED In recent years, there have been reports on several new approaches to retain more hydrophobic drugs inside liposomes, in the circulation. Most of these methods apply drug precipitation inside preformed liposomes, as low soluble complexes with ions or chemicals. In some cases, drug derivatization was applied to enable active encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs, previously not reported to encapsulate, by active or remote loading. This review presents and compares most of the existing methods of active drug encapsulation and outlines recent strategies to achieve stable drug encapsulation in vivo. EXPERT OPINION At present, there is no single universal encapsulation method that offers stable encapsulation of most drugs; each drug requires a different approach to manage all of its properties. Now is the time to combine all these strategies to achieve the goal of a complex, but successful, anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerzy Gubernator
- University of Wrocław, Faculty of Biotechnology, Laboratory of Lipids and Liposomes, Przybyszewskiego 63/77, 51-148 Wrocław, Poland.
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Kita K, Dittrich C. Drug delivery vehicles with improved encapsulation efficiency: taking advantage of specific drug–carrier interactions. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2011; 8:329-42. [DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2011.553216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Bonnet S, Limburg B, Meeldijk JD, Klein Gebbink RJM, Killian JA. Ruthenium-Decorated Lipid Vesicles: Light-Induced Release of [Ru(terpy)(bpy)(OH2)]2+ and Thermal Back Coordination. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 133:252-61. [DOI: 10.1021/ja105025m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sylvestre Bonnet
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, and Electron Microscopy Utrecht, Department of Biology,Organic Chemistry & Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterial Science, and Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Center, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bart Limburg
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, and Electron Microscopy Utrecht, Department of Biology,Organic Chemistry & Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterial Science, and Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Center, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes D. Meeldijk
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, and Electron Microscopy Utrecht, Department of Biology,Organic Chemistry & Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterial Science, and Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Center, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Robertus J. M. Klein Gebbink
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, and Electron Microscopy Utrecht, Department of Biology,Organic Chemistry & Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterial Science, and Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Center, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J. Antoinette Killian
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, and Electron Microscopy Utrecht, Department of Biology,Organic Chemistry & Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterial Science, and Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Center, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Reduced dose-limiting toxicity of intraperitoneal mitoxantrone chemotherapy using cardiolipin-based anionic liposomes. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2010; 6:769-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Revised: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 05/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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He Y, Zhang L, Song C. Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptor-mediated delivery of mitoxantrone using LHRH analogs modified with PEGylated liposomes. Int J Nanomedicine 2010; 5:697-705. [PMID: 20957221 PMCID: PMC2948949 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s12129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A sterically stabilized, mitoxantrone-loaded liposome, tailored to target luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) receptor overexpressing cells, was developed to promote the efficiency of intracellular delivery of mitoxantrone through receptor-mediated endocytosis. Liposomes were prepared by lipid film hydration and an ultrasound dispersion process. Thiolated gonadorelin with affinity for the LHRH receptor was chemically coupled to N-[(3-maleimide-1-oxopropyl) aminopropyl polyethylene glycol-carbamyl] distearoyl-l-phosphatidyl-ethanolamine via a thioether bond and subsequently inserted into polyethylene glycol-grafted liposomes. The liposome was characterized in terms of its size, ligand density, drug loading, and leakage properties. The targeting nature and antitumor effects of the liposomes were evaluated in vitro using cultured MCF-7 breast cancer cells. A protein assay of ligand coupling to the liposomal surface indicated that more than 60% of the LHRH peptides were inserted into the liposome bilayer. Up to 1.0 mg/mL of stable liposomal mitoxantrone loading was achieved, with approximately 98% of this being entrapped within the liposomes. In vitro cell culture studies revealed that the gonadorelin-modified liposomes bound to their target cells had significantly higher affinity and better antitumor efficiency than generic drug-loaded liposomes. These events were presumed to occur through specific interactions of the LHRH with its cognate receptors on the cell surface. It was concluded that the targeting properties of the delivery system would potentially improve the therapeutic benefits of mitoxantrone, as compared with nontargeted liposomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingna He
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Material of Tianjin, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
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