Development of intravenous lipid emulsion of vinorelbine based on drug–phospholipid complex technique

Gemcitabine-Phospholipid Complex Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles for Improving Drug Loading, Stability, and Efficacy against Pancreatic Cancer

This study aims to encapsulate gemcitabine (GEM) using a phospholipid complex (PLC) in lipid nanoparticles (NPs) to achieve several desirable outcomes, including high drug loading, uniform particle size, improved therapeutic efficacy, and reduced toxicities. The successful preparation of GEM-loaded lipid NPs (GEM-NPs) was accomplished using the emulsification-solidification method, following optimization through Box-Behnken design. The size of the GEM-NP was 138.5 ± 6.7 nm, with a low polydispersity index of 0.282 ± 0.078, as measured by a zetasizer and confirmed by transmission electron and atomic force microscopy. GEM-NPs demonstrated sustained release behavior, surpassing the performance of the free GEM and phospholipid complex. Moreover, GEM-NPs exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and cell uptake in Panc-2 and Mia PaCa cells compared to the free GEM. The in vivo pharmacokinetics revealed approximately 4-fold higher bioavailability of GEM-NPs in comparison with free GEM. Additionally, the pharmacodynamic evaluation conducted in a DMBA-induced pancreatic cancer model, involving histological examination, serum IL-6 level estimation, and expression of cleaved caspase-3, showed the potential of GEM-NPs in the management of pancreatic cancer. Consequently, the lipid NP-based approach developed in our investigation demonstrates high stability and uniformity and holds promise for enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of GEM.

Preparation and in vivo evaluation of an intravenous emulsion loaded with an aprepitant-phospholipid complex

In present, there was no detailed report on the formulation optimization and quality evaluation of aprepitant (APT) injectable lipid emulsion (APT-IE). The aim of the present investigation was to prepare and evaluate its properties of APT-IE loaded with an APT phospholipid complex (APT-PC) in vitro and in vivo. APT-PC was obtained by solvent evaporation with APT and phospholipids, then analyzed by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. Lipid emulsions are a new formulation that can reduce side effects and improve drug loading.APT-IE prepared by High-pressure homogenization and optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The proportion of sodium oleate, poloxamer 188 and soybean oil were selected as variables for the optimization. The optimal formulation of ATP-IE had the following characteristics: particle size, 82.83 ± 1.89 nm; polydispersity index, 0.243 ± 0.008; zeta potential, -59.0 ± 2.54 mV; encapsulation efficiency, 98.84%±1.43%; drug loading, 7.08 ± 0.16 mg/mL; and osmotic pressure, 301 ± 2.15 mOsmol/kg. Transmission electron microscopy images indicated that the particle diameter of APT-IE was approximately 100 nm, with a morphology of spheroidal or spherical. APT-IE exhibited sufficient stability after storage at 4 ± 2 °C for more than 6 months. The results of the pharmacokinetic study demonstrated that APT-IE had the advantages of better safety, higher bioavailability, and obvious liver targeting than APT solution (APT-SL). The area under the curve (AUC) of APT-IE was 3-fold enhanced compared with APT-SL. The targeted enhancement multiple of APT-IE to liver tissue was greater than that of APT-SL. These results suggested that APT-IE has broad clinical application and industrial production potential.

Application of a Novel Multicomponent Nanoemulsion to Tumor Therapy Based on the Theory of “Unification of Drugs and Excipients”

Toad skin has many pharmacological activities and bufadienolides are regarded as its main anti-tumor components. The poor water solubility, high toxicity, rapid elimination and less selectivity in vivo of bufadienolides limit the application of toad skin. Based on the "unification of drugs and excipients" theory, the toad skin extracts (TSE) and Brucea javanica oil (BJO) nanoemulsions (NEs) were designed to solve the aforementioned problems. BJO as the main oil phase was not only used to prepare the NEs, but played a synergistic therapeutic role combined with TSE. TSE-BJO NEs showed 155 nm particle size, entrapment efficiency of >95% and good stability. TSE-BJO NEs demonstrated superior anti-tumor activity compared with the TSE or BJO NEs alone. The mechanism of TSE-BJO NEs to enhance the antineoplastic efficacy involved several pathways, such as inhibiting cell proliferation, inducing tumor cell apoptosis >40% and arresting cell cycle at G2/M. TSE-BJO NEs could co-deliver drugs into the target cells efficiently and exhibit satisfying synergism. Besides, TSE-BJO NEs facilitated the long circulation of bufadienolides contributing to the high accumulation of drugs at tumor sites and the improvement of anti-tumor efficacy. The study achieves the combinative administration of the toxic TSE and BJO with high efficacy and safety.

Anticancer Drugs: Recent Strategies to Improve Stability Profile, Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Properties

In past decades, anticancer research has led to remarkable results despite many of the approved drugs still being characterized by high systemic toxicity mainly due to the lack of tumor selectivity and present pharmacokinetic drawbacks, including low water solubility, that negatively affect the drug circulation time and bioavailability. The stability studies, performed in mild conditions during their development or under stressing exposure to high temperature, hydrolytic medium or light source, have demonstrated the sensitivity of anticancer drugs to many parameters. For this reason, the formation of degradation products is assessed both in pharmaceutical formulations and in the environment as hospital waste. To date, numerous formulations have been developed for achieving tissue-specific drug targeting and reducing toxic side effects, as well as for improving drug stability. The development of prodrugs represents a promising strategy in targeted cancer therapy for improving the selectivity, efficacy and stability of active compounds. Recent studies show that the incorporation of anticancer drugs into vesicular systems, such as polymeric micelles or cyclodextrins, or the use of nanocarriers containing chemotherapeutics that conjugate to monoclonal antibodies can improve solubility, pharmacokinetics, cellular absorption and stability. In this study, we summarize the latest advances in knowledge regarding the development of effective highly stable anticancer drugs formulated as stable prodrugs or entrapped in nanosystems.

Optimization, and in vitro and in vivo evaluation of etomidate intravenous lipid emulsion

The aim of this investigation was to develop an etomidate intravenous lipid emulsion (ETM-ILE) and evaluate its properties in vitro and in vivo. Etomidate (ETM) is a hydrophobic drug, and organic solvents must be added to an etomidate injectable solution (ETM-SOL) to aid dissolution, that causes various adverse reactions on injection. Lipid emulsions are a novel drug formulation that can improve drug loading and reduce adverse reactions. ETM-ILE was prepared using high-pressure homogenization. Univariate experiments were performed to select key conditions and variables. The proportion of oil, egg lecithin, and poloxamer 188 (F68) served as variables for the optimization of the ETM-ILE formulation by central composite design response surface methodology. The optimized formulation had the following characteristics: particle size, 168.0 ± 0.3 nm; polydispersity index, 0.108 ± 0.028; zeta potential, −36.4 ± 0.2 mV; drug loading, 2.00 ± 0.01 mg/mL; encapsulation efficiency, 97.65% ± 0.16%; osmotic pressure, 292 ± 2 mOsmol/kg and pH value, 7.63 ± 0.07. Transmission electron microscopy images showed that the particles were spherical or spheroidal, with a diameter of approximately 200 nm. The stability study suggested that ETM-ILE could store at 4 ± 2 °C or 25 ± 2 °C for 12 months. Safety tests showed that ETM-ILE did not cause hemolysis or serious vascular irritation. The results of the pharmacokinetic study found that ETM-ILE was bioequivalent to ETM-SOL. However, a higher concentration of ETM was attained in the liver, spleen, and lungs after administration of ETM-ILE than after administration of ETM-SOL. This study found that ETM-ILE had great potential for clinical applications.

Effective management of acute postoperative pain using intravenous emulsions of novel ketorolac prodrugs: in vitro and in vivo evaluations

The aim was to prepare intravenous fat emulsions (IFEs) of ketorolac (KTL) ester prodrugs and to investigate the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of these formulations. Three prodrugs of KTL (KTL-IS, KTL-AX and KTL-BT) were synthesized as a means to increase the lipid solubility of KTL. All KTL prodrugs with higher Log P values presented increased tendency to partition into a blank IFE using extemporaneous addition method - the encapsulation efficiency of KTL-IS IFE and KTL-BT IFE was more than 97%. The particle sizes and zeta potentials of these two formulations were comparable to that of the blank IFE. PK studies in rabbits showed significant larger AUC0-8h (646.969 ± 154.326 mg/L•h-1 for KTL-IS IFE and 559.426 ± 103.057 mg/L•h-1 for KTL-BT IFE) than that of ketorolac tromethamine (KTL-T) injectable (286.968 ± 63.045 mg/L•h-1) and approximately 2-fold increases in the elimination t1/2 over KTL-T. In a rat postoperative pain model, the paw withdrawal thresholds and the paw withdrawal latency after I.V. KTL prodrug IFEs were significantly higher than that after I.V. KTL-T at 3~4 h. Effective controlling of acute postoperative pain in a longer duration can be achieved by using non-addictive ketorolac derivatives intraveneous emulsions.

Successful oral delivery of fexofenadine hydrochloride by improving permeability via phospholipid complexation

The present work aimed to enhance liposolubility along with intestinal permeability of BCS class III drug fexofenadine (FEX) via phospholipid complexation strategy in order to improve its oral bioavailability. This work demonstrated the minimized P-gp efflux and augmented absorption of FEX when fabricated as phospholipid complex. The fexofenadine-phospholipid complex (FEX-PLC) was prepared using widely used solvent evaporation method. Among three phospholipids, Phospholipon® 90 H was screened out for further studies due to high drug content and physical form. The FTIR spectra demonstrated the disappearance of characteristic peaks of FEX which could be attributed to shielding by phospholipid due to molecular interactions between FEX and phospholipid. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffractometry (PXRD) revealed the amorphous state of FEX in the complex. The partition coefficient study indicated the increased in lipophilicity which can further be correlated with 1.85 ± 0.850 fold enhancement in intestinal permeability of FEX-PLC in comparison to FEX in Caco-2 permeability assay. Furthermore, efflux ratio of FEX was decreased significantly from 4.04 (FEX) to 1.34 (FEX-PLC) which indicated inhibition of P-gp efflux of FEX. The in vivo evaluation in Wistar rats presented 3.38 fold increment in oral bioavailability of FEX-PLC as compared to FEX. In summary, the phospholipid complexation demonstrated as a simple and promising approach to tackle oral bioavailability hurdles of BCS class III drugs and convert them to BCS class I drugs.

Preparation and preliminary pharmacokinetics study of GNA-loaded zein nanoparticles

OBJECTIVES

Gambogenic acid (GNA), one of the main active ingredients isolated from Garcinia cambogia, has shown diverse antitumour activities. However, short biological half-life and low oral bioavailability severely limit its clinical application. Here, we developed GNA-loaded zein nanoparticles (GNA-ZN-NPs) based on phospholipid complex and zein nanoparticles to prolong the circulation time and enhance oral bioavailability of GNA.

METHODS

The physicochemical properties of GNA-ZN-NP were characterized in details. The in vitro release profile, in vivo pharmacokinetic experiments and tissue distribution of GNA-ZN-NPs were also evaluated.

KEY FINDINGS

The particle size, PDI and encapsulation efficiency of GNA-ZN-NPs were 102.90 nm, 0.027 and 76.35 ± 0.64%, respectively. The results of SEM, FTIR, DSC and XRD demonstrated that GNA-ZN-NPs were prepared successfully. The in vitro dissolution of GNA-ZN-NPs exhibited controlled release compared with raw GNA solution. The pharmacokinetic study showed that the AUC of GNA-ZN-NPs was significantly increased, and the t_1/2 and MRT values of GNA-ZN-NPs were 3.21-fold and 2.19-fold higher than that of GNA solution. Tissue distribution results illustrated that GNA-ZN-NPs showed hepatic-targeting properties.

CONCLUSION

GNA-ZN-NPs significantly enhanced the oral bioavailability and prolonged half-life of GNA, providing a promising oral drug delivery system to improve in vivo pharmacokinetic behaviour of GNA.

A Phase I Comparative Pharmacokinetic and Safety Study of Two Intravenous Formulations of Vinorelbine in Patients With Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Purpose: The aim of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics and safety between two vinorelbine formulations [a new oil-in-water emulsion formulation (ANX) versus a previously marketed solution formulation (Navelbine)] in Chinese patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Method: This was a single-center, randomized, open-label study. Eligible patients aged 18–70 years who had histologically or cytologically confirmed NSCLC were enrolled. In cycle 1, the patients alternatively received the two formulations (30 mg/m², given as a 10-min infusion) with a 7-day interval. Samples for pharmacokinetic analysis were taken during cycle 1. For all subsequent 21-day cycles (maximum four cycles), ANX was administered on days 1 and day 8. Bioequivalence analysis was performed on C_max, AUC_last, and AUC_inf. The safety profiles and anti-tumor effects were also determined.

Results: From March 2013 to January 2015, 24 patients were enrolled and 20 were eligible for pharmacokinetic evaluation. The 20 subjects in the pharmacokinetic analysis set had a median age of 61 years (range, 37–70 years), and 15 patients were male (75%). Mean vinorelbine C_max values for ANX and Navelbine were 1,317.40 and 1,446.30 ng/mL, respectively. Corresponding AUC_last values were 797.08 and 924.26 ng·h/mL, respectively. AUC_inf values were 830.14 and 957.16 ng·h/mL, respectively. Treatment ratios of the geometric means were 90.00% (90% CI, 83.22–99.07%) for C_max, 86.92% (90% CI, 80.91–93.37%) for AUC_last, and 87.44% (90% CI, 82.08–93.16%) for AUC_inf. These results met the required 80–125% bioequivalence criteria. The most frequently reported adverse events after vinorelbine administration were neutropenia, leucopenia, neutropenic fever, and constipation.

Conclusion: At therapeutic dosage levels, pharmacokinetic behavior and safety profiles were similar for both formulations. Chinese National Registry Code: ChiCTR-IPR-15005856.

Phytochylomicron as a dual nanocarrier for liver cancer targeting of luteolin: in vitro appraisal and pharmacodynamics

Aim: A novel luteolin (LUT) loaded dual bionanocarrier ‘phytochylomicron’ was elaborated to allow LUT injectable delivery and liver cancer targeting. Methods: LUT–phospholipid complex was prepared and loaded into chylomicron nanocarrier. Then phytochylomicron underwent physicochemical characterization, cell culture and pharmacodynamics studies on a new liver-tumor model. Results: Phytochylomicron showed sustained release pattern with minimum drug leakage until reaching the liver. Cell culture studies showed high growth inhibition of Hep G2 cells with 2.6-fold enhancement in cellular uptake. Pharmacodynamics demonstrated enhanced tumor growth inhibition (sixfold) with a significant tumor size reduction. Finally, cell culture results demonstrated an excellent correlation with pharmacodynamics confirming the obtained findings. Conclusion: A novel phytochylomicron nanosystem was successfully elaborated with promising characteristics that promoted injectable LUT delivery and liver cancer targeting.

[Formula: see text]

Improved metabolic stability and therapeutic efficacy of a novel molecular gemcitabine phospholipid complex

The aim of the present research is to increase lipid solubility, metabolic stability and therapeutic efficacy of water soluble gemcitabine (GEM) via phospholipid complex (PC) formation. A novel phospholipid complex of GEM was successfully prepared and optimized. Physical interaction of GEM with phospholipid was evaluated by DSC, FT-IR, ¹H NMR, ³¹P-NMR and P-XRD. SEM images of GEM-PC showed rough structure and TEM images of diluted aqueous dispersion of GEM-PC showed micellar structure. In silico study also revealed the significant interaction between drug and phospholipid. GEM-PC demonstrated sustained drug release pattern and high plasma stability (∼2.2 fold) in vitro as compared to GEM. Increased in vitro cytotoxicity and apoptosis were observed with GEM-PC, when incubated with human pancreas adenocarcinoma cell lines. In vivo pharmacokinetics showed the almost 2 fold increase in AUC_0-∞ (area under curve) with phospholipid complex (8983.26ngh/ml) as compared with GEM (4371.18ngh/ml) and GEMITA (4689.29ngh/ml). Toxicity studies signify the safety of GEM-PC over GEMITA. Pharmacodynamics studies in pancreatic tumor model further revealed higher efficacy of GEM-PC than GEMITA. These findings suggested the higher potential of phospholipid based technology for the enhancement of metabolic stability and therapeutic efficacy of GEM.

Efficient co-delivery of immiscible hydrophilic/hydrophobic chemotherapeutics by lipid emulsions for improved treatment of cancer

Combinational nanomedicine is becoming a topic of much interest in cancer therapy, although its translation into the clinic remains extremely challenging. One of the main obstacles lies in the difficulty to efficiently co-deliver immiscible hydrophilic/hydrophobic drugs into tumor sites. The aim of this study was to develop co-loaded lipid emulsions (LEs) to co-deliver immiscible hydrophilic/hydrophobic drugs to improve cancer therapy and to explore the co-delivery abilities between co-loaded LEs and mixture formulation. Multiple oxaliplatin/irinotecan drug–phospholipid complexes (DPCs) were formulated. Co-loaded LEs were prepared using DPC technique to efficiently encapsulate both drugs. Co-loaded LEs exhibited uniform particle size distribution, desired stability and synchronous release profiles in both drugs. Co-loaded LEs demonstrated superior anti-tumor activity compared with the simple solution mixture and the mixture of single-loaded LEs. Furthermore, co-loaded nanocarriers could co-deliver both drugs into the same cells more efficiently and exhibited the optimized synergistic effect. These results indicate that co-loaded LEs could be a desired formulation for enhanced cancer therapy with potential application prospects. The comparison between co-loaded LEs and mixture formulation is significant for pharmaceutical designs aimed at co-delivery of multiple drugs.

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol Phospholipid Complex: Process Optimization, Characterization, In Vitro Dissolution and Molecular Docking Studies

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD), a bioactive compound extracted from ginseng, possesses cardioprotective, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antiestrogenic, anticancer and anxiolytic effects. However, the clinical application of PPD is limited by its weak aqueous solubility. In this study, we optimized an efficient method of preparing its phospholipid complex (PPD-PLC) using a central composite design and response surface analysis. The prepared PPD-PLC was characterized by differential scanning calorimetric, powder X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance analyses associated with molecular docking calculation. The equilibrium solubility of PPD-PLC in water and n-octanol increased 6.53- and 1.53-times, respectively. Afterwards, using PPD-PLC as the intermediate, the PPD-PLC-loaded dry suspension (PPD-PLC-SU) was prepared with our previous method. In vitro evaluations were conducted on PPD-PLC and PPD-PLC-SU, including dissolution behaviors and stability properties under different conditions. Results of in vitro dissolution behavior revealed the improved dissolution extents and rates of PPD-PLC and PPD-PLC-SU (p < 0.05). Results of the formulation stability investigation also exposed the better stability of PPD-PLC-SU compared with free PPD. Therefore, phospholipid complex technology is a useful formulation strategy for BCS II drugs, as it could effectively improve their hydrophilicity and lipophilicity.

Inventory of oral anticancer agents: Pharmaceutical formulation aspects with focus on the solid dispersion technique

Dissolution from the pharmaceutical formulation is a prerequisite for complete and consistent absorption of any orally administered drug, including anticancer agents (oncolytics). Poor dissolution of an oncolytic can result in low oral bioavailability, high variability in blood concentrations and with that suboptimal or even failing therapy. This review discusses pharmaceutical formulation aspects and absorption pharmacokinetics of currently licensed orally administered oncolytics. In nearly half of orally dosed oncolytics poor dissolution is likely to play a major role in low and unpredictable absorption. Dissolution-limited drug absorption can be improved with a solid dispersion which is a formulation method that induces super-saturated drug dissolution and with that it enhances in vivo absorption. This review discusses formulation principles with focus on the solid dispersion technology and how it works to enhance drug absorption. There are currently three licensed orally dosed oncolytics formulated as a solid dispersion (everolimus, vemurafenib and regorafenib) and these formulations result in remarkably improved dissolution and absorption compared to what can be achieved with conventional formulations of the respective oncolytics. Because of the successful implementation of these three solid dispersion formulations, we encourage the application of this formulation method for poorly soluble oral oncolytics.

Drug delivery systems and combination therapy by using vinca alkaloids

Developing new methods for chemotherapy drug delivery has become a topic of great concern. Vinca alkaloids are among the most widely used chemotherapy reagents for tumor therapy; however, their side effects are particularly problematic for many medical doctors. To reduce the toxicity and enhance the therapeutic efficiency of vinca alkaloids, many researchers have developed strategies such as using liposome-entrapped drugs, chemical- or peptide-modified drugs, polymeric packaging drugs, and chemotherapy drug combinations. This review mainly focuses on the development of a vinca alkaloid drug delivery system and the combination therapy. Five vinca alkaloids (eg, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine, vindesine, and vinflunine) are reviewed.

Phospholipid complex as an approach for bioavailability enhancement of echinacoside

CONTEXT

Echinacoside (ECH) has been shown to possess a multitude of pharmacological activities, however, oral administered ECH failed to fulfill its therapeutic potential due to poor absorption and low bioavailability. Thus, there is a pressing need to develop a new oral dosage form to enhance its intestinal absorption and improve bioavailability.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to formulate ECH into phospholipid complex (phytosome, PHY) to enhance intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability of ECH in vivo.

METHODS

The PHY was prepared by a solvent evaporation method and was characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and infrared spectroscopy (IR), and then the physicochemical properties, intestinal absorption and bioavailability of the PHY were investigated.

RESULTS

Compared with the physical mixture (MIX) or ECH alone, the n-octanol/water partition coefficient (P) determination results showed that the lipophilicity of ECH was significantly enhanced by formation of PHY. Accordingly, the intestinal absorption rate (Ka) was improved to 2.82-fold and the effective permeability coefficient (Peff) increased to 3.39-fold. The concentrations of ECH in rat plasma at different times after oral administration of PHY were determined by HPLC. Pharmacokinetic parameters of the PHY in rats were Tmax = 1.500 h, Cmax = 3.170 mg/mL, AUC0-∞ = 9.375 mg/L h and AUC0-24 = 7.712 mg/L h, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with ECH alone or the MIX group, the relative bioavailability of ECH was increased significantly after formulation into PHY (p < 0.05). This might be mainly due to an improvement of the absorption of PHY.