Enhanced gene delivery efficiency of cationic liposomes coated with PEGylated hyaluronic acid for anti P-glycoprotein siRNA: A potential candidate for overcoming multi-drug resistance

Dual-targeting galactose-functionalized hyaluronic acid modified lipid nanoparticles delivering silybin for alleviating alcoholic liver injury

Alcoholic liver injury stands as a predominant pathogenic contributor to the global burden of liver diseases, with alcohol consumption serving as a significant determinant of worldwide morbidity and mortality. Given that liver-targeted therapy for mitigating alcoholic liver injury remains to be a major clinical challenge due to the poor specificity and instability associated with single targeting modification in actively targeted nanomedicine systems, bifunctional targeting modification may serve as a more promising strategy. Here, galactose-functionalized hyaluronic acid (Gal-HA) coated cationic solid lipid nanoparticles carrying silybin (Gal-HA/SIL-SLNPs) featuring dual-targeting hyaluronic acid (HA) and galactose (Gal) moieties, enabled specific liver surface targeting of asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) and cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) proteins to enhance silybin uptake, while simultaneously ameliorating the deficiencies of positively charged lipid nanoparticles as drug carriers and preserving their stability in the bloodstream. Based on the findings, Gal-HA/SIL-SLNPs with excellent biocompatibility demonstrated improved cellular internalization and liver distribution, while also displaying ideal curative properties in a mouse model of alcohol-induced liver injury without causing damage to other organs. This work suggests that Gal-HA/SIL-SLNPs with dual modification may represent an encouraging approach for developing more effective liver targeted nano-drug delivery systems to achieve accurate medication for alcoholic liver injury.

A Review: Surface Engineering of Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems

This review explores the evolution of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) for drug delivery (DD). Herein, LBNPs are classified into liposomes and cell membrane-based nanoparticles (CMNPs), each with unique advantages and challenges. Conventional LBNPs possess drawbacks such as poor targeting, quick clearance, and limited biocompatibility. One of the possible alternatives to overcome these challenges is surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with materials such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), aptamers, antibody fragments, peptides, CD44, hyaluronic acid, folic acid, palmitic acid, and lactoferrin. Thus, the main focus of this review will be on the different surface modifications that enable LBNPs to have beneficial properties for DD, such as enhancing mass transport properties, immune evasion, improved stability, and targeting. Moreover, various CMNPs are explored used for DD derived from cells such as red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, leukocytes, cancer cells, and stem cells, highlighting their unique natural properties (e.g., biocompatibility and ability to evade the immune system). This discussion extends to the biomimicking of hybrid NPs accomplished through the surface coating of synthetic (mainly polymeric) NPs with different cell membranes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive resource for researchers on recent advances in the field of surface modification of LBNPs and CMNPs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the dynamic field of lipid-based DD systems.

Novel polyurethane-based ionene nanoparticles electrostatically stabilized with hyaluronic acid for effective gene therapy

Gene therapy is considered to be a valuable strategy for effective cancer treatment. However, the development of effective delivery systems that can specifically deliver gene materials, such as siRNA to tumor tissues plays a critical role in cancer therapy. In the present study, we have developed a novel complex that is based on an electrostatic interaction between cationic polyurethane ionene (CPUI) nanoparticles and an anti-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) siRNA. For active targeting, hyaluronic acid (HA) was used to coat the complexes, which significantly reduced the cytotoxicity of the blank nanocarriers while demonstrating high transport efficiency of the siRNA via the CD44-mediated endocytosis pathway in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The targeted nanocarriers (HA/CPUI/siRNA) showed significantly higher cellular internalization in flow cytometry and confocal microscopy compared with the non-targeted system (CPUI/siRNA). In addition, the incorporation of HA on the surface of the complexes resulted in significantly greater suppression of the STAT3 gene compared to the corresponding non-targeted formulation. Whole-body fluorescence images showed more significant tumor accumulation of the targeted nanocarriers in 4T1 breast tumor-bearing mice. Therefore, HA/CPUI/siRNA nanocarriers are an interesting option for the siRNA-targeted treatment of breast cancer cells.

Hyaluronic acid-empowered nanotheranostics in breast and lung cancers therapy

Nanomedicine application in cancer therapy is an urgency because of inability of current biological therapies for complete removal of tumor cells. The development of smart and novel nanoplatforms for treatment of cancer can provide new insight in tumor suppression. Hyaluronic acid is a biopolymer that can be employed for synthesis of smart nanostructures capable of selective targeting CD44-overexpressing tumor cells. The breast and lung cancers are among the most malignant and common tumors in both females and males that environmental factors, lifestyle and genomic alterations are among the risk factors for their pathogenesis and development. Since etiology of breast and lung tumors is not certain and multiple factors participate in their development, preventative measures have not been completely successful and studies have focused on developing new treatment strategies for them. The aim of current review is to provide a comprehensive discussion about application of hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures for treatment of breast and lung cancers. The main reason of using hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles is their ability in targeting breast and lung cancers in a selective way due to upregulation of CD44 receptor on their surface. Moreover, nanocarriers developed from hyaluronic acid or functionalized with hyaluronic acid have high biocompatibility and their safety is appreciated. The drugs and genes used for treatment of breast and lung cancers lack specific accumulation at cancer site and their cytotoxicity is low, but hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures provide their targeted delivery to tumor site and by increasing internalization of drugs and genes in breast and lung tumor cells, they improve their therapeutic index. Furthermore, hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures can be used for phototherapy-mediated breast and lung cancers ablation. The stimuli-responsive and smart kinds of hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures such as pH- and light-responsive can increase selective targeting of breast and lung cancers.

Liposomal nanocarriers containing siRNA as small molecule-based drugs to overcome cancer drug resistance

This review discusses the application of nanoliposomes containing siRNA/drug to overcome multidrug resistance for all types of cancer treatments. As drug resistance-associated factors are overexpressed in many cancer cell types, pumping chemotherapy drugs out of the cytoplasm leads to an inadequate therapeutic response. The siRNA/drug-loaded nanoliposomes are a promising approach to treating multidrug-resistant cancer, as they can effectively transmit a small-molecule drug into the target cytoplasm, ensuring that the drug binds efficiently. Moreover, nanoliposome-based therapeutics with advances in nanotechnology can effectively deliver siRNA to cancer cells. Overall, nanoliposomes have the potential to effectively deliver siRNA and small-molecule drugs in a targeted manner and are thus a promising tool for the treatment of cancer and other diseases.

Formulation and evaluation of a two-stage targeted liposome coated with hyaluronic acid for improving lung cancer chemotherapy and overcoming multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) has emerged as a prominent challenge contributing to the ineffectiveness of chemotherapy in treating non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Currently, mitochondria of cancer cells are identified as a promising target for overcoming MDR due to their crucial role in intrinsic apoptosis pathway and energy supply centers. Here, a two-stage targeted liposome (HA/TT LP/PTX) was successfully developed via a two-step process: PTX-loaded cationic liposome (TT LP/PTX) were formulated by lipid film hydration & ultrasound technique, followed by further coating with natural anionic polysaccharide hyaluronic acid (HA). TT, an amphipathic polymer conjugate of triphenylphosphine (TPP)-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS), was used to modify the liposomes for mitochondrial targeting. The average particle size, zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of HA/TT LP/PTX were found to be 153 nm, -30.3 mV and 92.1% based on the optimal prescription of HA/TT LP/PTX. Compared to cationic liposome, HA-coated liposomes showed improved stability and safety, including biological stability in serum, cytocompatibility, and lower hemolysis percentage. In drug-resistant A549/T cells, HA was shown to improve the cellular uptake of PTX through CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis and subsequent degradation by hyaluronidase (HAase) in endosomes. Following this, the exposure of TT polymer facilitated the accumulation of PTX within the mitochondria. As a result, the function of mitochondria in A549/T cells was disturbed, leading to an increased ROS level, decreased ATP level, dissipated MMP, and increased G2/M phase arrest. This resulted in a higher apoptotic rate and stronger anticancer efficacy.

Hyaluronic acid-functionalized lipoplexes and polyplexes as emerging nanocarriers for receptor-targeted cancer therapy

Cancer is an intricate disease that develops as a response to a combination of hereditary and environmental risk factors, which then result in a variety of changes to the genome. The cluster of differentiation (CD44) is a type of transmembrane glycoprotein that serves as a potential biomarker for cancer stem cells (CSC) and viable targets for therapeutic intervention in the context of cancer therapy. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a linear polysaccharide that exhibits a notable affinity for the CD44 receptor. This characteristic renders it a promising candidate for therapeutic interventions aimed at selectively targeting CD44-positive cancer cells. Treating cancer via non-viral vector-based gene delivery has changed the notion of curing illness through the incorporation of therapeutic genes into the organism. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of various hyaluronic acid-modified lipoplexes and polyplexes as potential drug delivery methods for specific forms of cancer by effectively targeting CD44.

Colon-specific delivery of methotrexate using hyaluronic acid modified pH-responsive nanocarrier for the therapy of colitis in mice

Oral immunosuppressant methotrexate (MTX) is an effective method for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). To overcome the defects of clinical application of MTX, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), Eudragits® S100 (ES100), chitosan (CS) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were used to structure the MTX-loaded HA-CS/ES100/PLGA nanoparticles (MTX@hCEP). MTX@hCEP had a hydrodynamic particle size of approximately 202.5 nm, narrow size distribution, negative zeta potential (-18.7 mV), and smooth surface morphology. In vitro drug release experiments under simulated gastrointestinal conditions indicated that MTX@hCEP exhibited colonic pH-sensitive drug release properties. The cellular uptake capacity of hCEP nanoparticles was significantly enhanced in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, we further found that the MTX@hCEP also inhibited the proliferation and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the LPS-stimulated macrophages. In vivo imaging results not only demonstrated that the accumulated in the colon of colitis mice, but also indicated the extended retention time of MTX in the colon. Additionally, MTX@hCEP alleviated inflammatory symptoms via decreasing the activities of myeloperoxidase and pro-inflammatory factors, promoting mucosal repair in vivo. Collectively, these results clearly demonstrated that MTX@hCEP with properties of colon-specific and macrophages targeting can be exploited as an efficient nanotherapeutic for IBD therapy.

Enhanced anti-breast cancer efficacy of co-delivery liposomes of docetaxel and curcumin

The successful treatment of breast cancer is hampered by toxicity to normal cells, impaired drug accumulation at the tumor site, and multidrug resistance. We designed a novel multifunctional liposome, CUR-DTX-L, to co-deliver curcumin (CUR) and the chemotherapeutic drug docetaxel (DTX) for the treatment of breast cancer in order to address multidrug resistance (MDR) and the low efficacy of chemotherapy. The mean particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency of CUR-DTX-L were 208.53 ± 6.82 nm, 0.055 ± 0.001, -23.1 ± 2.1 mV, and 98.32 ± 2.37%, respectively. An in vitro release study and CCK-8 assays showed that CUR-DTX-L has better sustained release effects and antitumor efficacy than free drugs, the antitumor efficacy was verified by MCF-7 tumor-bearing mice, the CUR-DTX-L showed better antitumor efficacy than other groups, and the in vivo pharmacokinetic study indicated that the plasma concentration-time curve, mean residence time, and biological half-life time of CUR-DTX-L were significantly increased compared with free drugs, suggesting that it is a promising drug delivery system for the synergistic treatment of breast cancer.

A review on the physicochemical and biological applications of biosurfactants in biotechnology and pharmaceuticals

Biosurfactants are the chemical compounds that are obtained from various micro-organisms and possess the ability to decrease the interfacial tension between two similar or different phases. The importance of biosurfactants in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, agriculture, food and oil industries has made them an interesting choice in various physico-chemical and biological applications. With the aim of representing different properties of biosurfactants, this review article is focused on emphasizing their applications in various industries summarizing their importance in each field. Along with this, the production of recently developed chemically and biologically important biosurfactants has been outlined. The advantages of biosurfactants over the chemical surfactants have also been discussed with emphasis on the latest findings and research performed worldwide. Moreover, the chemical and physical properties of different biosurfactants have been presented and different characterization techniques have been discussed. Overall, the review article covers the latest developments in biosurfactants along with their physico-chemical properties and applications in different fields, especially in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.

Hyaluronate-coated perfluoroalkyl polyamine prodrugs as bioactive siRNA delivery systems for the treatment of peritoneal cancers

RNA interference (RNAi) is an emerging therapeutic modality for cancer, which remains in critical need of effective delivery vectors due to the unfavorable biopharmaceutical properties of small RNAs. Polyamines are essential for functioning of mammalian cells. Dysregulated polyamine metabolism is found in many cancers and has been an attractive therapeutic target in combination therapies. Combination therapies based on drugs that affect polyamine metabolism and nucleic acids promise to enhance anticancer activity due to a cooperative effect on multiple oncogenic pathways. Here, we report bioactive polycationic prodrug (F-PaP) based on an anticancer polyamine analog bisethylnorspermine (BENSpm) modified with perfluoroalkyl moieties. Following encapsulation of siRNA, F-PaP/siRNA nanoparticles were coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to form ternary nanoparticles HA@F-PaP/siRNA. The presence of perfluoroalkyl moieties and HA reduced cell membrane toxicity and improved stability of the particles with cooperatively enhanced siRNA delivery in pancreatic and colon cancer cell lines. We then tested a therapeutic hypothesis that combining BENSpm with siRNA silencing of polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) would result in cooperative cancer cell killing. HA@F-PaP/siPLK1 induced polyamine catabolism and cell cycle arrest, leading to enhanced apoptosis in the tested cell lines. The HA-coated nanoparticles facilitated tumor accumulation and contributed to strong tumor inhibition and favorable modulation of the immune tumor microenvironment in orthotopic pancreatic cancer model. Combination anticancer therapy with polyamine prodrug-mediated delivery of siRNA. Hyaluronate coating of the siRNA nanoparticles facilitates selective accumulation in orthotopic pancreatic tumors. Perfluoroalkyl conjugation reduces toxicity and improves gene silencing effect. Nanoparticle treatment induces polyamine catabolism and cell cycle arrest leading to strong tumor inhibition and favorable modulation of immune tumor microenvironment.

Liposomal Drug Delivery And Its Potential Impact On Cancer Research

Liposomes are one of the most versatile drug carriers due to their functional properties, such as higher biocompatibility, the ability to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic products, and higher biodegradability. Liposomes are a better and more significant nanocarrier for cancer therapy. The key to developing a better cancer-targeted nanocarrier is the development of targeted liposomes using various approaches. Several traditional and novel liposome preparation methods are briefly discussed in this mini-review. The current state of liposome targeting, active and passive liposome targeting in cancer therapy, ligand directed targeting (antibody, aptamer, and protein/peptide-mediated targeting), and other miscellaneous approaches such as stimuli-responsive liposome-based targeting, autophagy inhibition mediated targeting, and curcumin loaded liposomal targeting are all discussed within. All of this gathered and compiled information will shed new light on liposome targeting strategies in cancer treatment and will pique the interest of aspiring researchers and academicians.

Delivery of nanoparticle antigens to antigen-presenting cells: from extracellular specific targeting to intracellular responsive presentation

An appropriate delivery system can improve the immune effects of antigens against various infections or tumors. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are specialized to capture and process antigens in vivo, which link the innate and adaptive immune responses. Functionalization of vaccine delivery systems with targeting moieties to APCs is a promising strategy for provoking potent immune responses. Additionally, the internalization and intracellular distribution of antigens are closely related to the initiation of downstream immune responses. With a deeper understanding of the intracellular microenvironment and the mechanisms of antigen presentation, vehicles designed to respond to endogenous and external stimuli can modulate antigen processing and presentation pathways, which are critical to the types of immune response. Here, an overview of extracellular targeting delivery of antigens to APCs and intracellular stimulus-responsiveness strategies is provided, which might be helpful for the rational design of vaccine delivery systems.

Influence of pH-responsive compounds synthesized from chitosan and hyaluronic acid on dual-responsive (pH/temperature) hydrogel drug delivery systems of Cortex Moutan

The polysaccharide-based pH-responsive compounds, namely, N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan (TMC), polyethylene glycolated hyaluronic acid (PEG-HA), and polysaccharide-based nano-conjugate of hyaluronic acid, chitosan oligosaccharide and alanine [HA-Ala-Chito(oligo)] were chemically synthesized using biopolymers chitosan and hyaluronic acid, and applied here to observe the changes in morphology, pH-stability, mechanical and drug-release behavior, and cytotoxicity of thermo-responsive polymer: Poloxamer 407 (PF127)-based drug delivery systems for traditional Chinese medicine Cortex Moutan (CM). The thermo-responsive hydrogel of PF127 loaded with CM (Gel^C) was used as control. The dual-responsive (pH/temperature) hydrogels: PF127/TMC/PEG-HA (Gel¹) and PF127/HA-Ala-Chito(oligo) (Gel²) showed improved mechanical behavior as obtained by rheology and mechanical agitation study, and pH-stability under various external pH conditions, and those improvements occurred due to the addition of polysaccharide-based pH-responsive compounds in the systems. Both, Gel¹ and Gel² showed better morphology than Gel^C as obtained by SEM or TEM suggesting that interaction of polysaccharide-based pH-responsive compounds with PF127 in either gel or sol state gave better porous network structure in the hydrogels or more dispersed micellar arrangements in sol-state, respectively. Gel¹ showed the highest cumulative drug release (86.5%) after 5 days under mild acidic condition (pH 6.4) suggesting that release behavior of a hydrogel drug carrier was dependent on morphology, mechanical behavior, and pH-stability. The transdermal release (ex-vivo) results indicated that gallic acid, the active marker of CM passed through porcine ear skin and all the formulations showed more or less similar transdermal release properties. The hydrogels loaded with CM showed no cytotoxicity (cell viability >90.0%) on human HaCaT keratinocytes within concentration range of 0.0-20.0 μg/ml as obtained by MTT assay, and cell viability was more than 100% at a concentration of 20.0 μg/ml for Gel². The formulations without loaded drug namely, Gel¹-CM and Gel²-CM exhibited strong anti-bacterial action against gram positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus.

Exosomes in Gliomas: Biogenesis, Isolation, and Preliminary Applications in Nanomedicine

Exosomes are phospholipid-based particles endogenously produced by both normal and tumor cells. Initially identified as a pathway for shuttling cellular waste, for a long time they were thought to act as “garbage bags”, and only in the past few years have they emerged as a promising drug delivery system. In this review, we provide an overview of the knowledge about exosome architecture and biogenesis and the recent progress in isolation methods. Furthermore, we describe the mechanisms involved in both extra- and intracellular communication with a focus on glioma brain tumors. Glioma is considered a rare disease and is the most prominent aggressive brain malignancy. How exosomes target glial tumoral cells in vivo remains largely unknown. However, they are able to influence numerous physio-pathological aspects. Here, we discuss the role they play in this heterogeneous and complex microenvironment and their potential applications.

Carbohydrate Immune Adjuvants in Subunit Vaccines

Modern subunit vaccines are composed of antigens and a delivery system and/or adjuvant (immune stimulator) that triggers the desired immune responses. Adjuvants mimic pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are typically associated with infections. Carbohydrates displayed on the surface of pathogens are often recognized as PAMPs by receptors on antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Consequently, carbohydrates and their analogues have been used as adjuvants and delivery systems to promote antigen transport to APCs. Carbohydrates are biocompatible, usually nontoxic, biodegradable, and some are mucoadhesive. As such, carbohydrates and their derivatives have been intensively explored for the development of new adjuvants. This review assesses the immunological functions of carbohydrate ligands and their ability to enhance systemic and mucosal immune responses against co-administered antigens. The role of carbohydrate-based adjuvants/delivery systems in the development of subunit vaccines is discussed in detail.

Versatile cationic liposomes for RIP3 overexpression in colon cancer therapy and RIP3 downregulation in acute pancreatitis therapy

Because the induction of strong host antitumor responses plays a very important role in antitumor therapy, identifying effective approaches to elicit immunogenic cell death could have important implications. RIP3-dependent necroptotic cancer cells have been reported to release damage-associated molecular patterns and enhance antitumor immunity. In this study, hyaluronic acid-conjugated cationic liposomes (DOTAP/DOPE/PEG-DSPE/CHOL) (HA-P-LP) were prepared as a vector for mRIP3-pDNA overexpression in tumours. Compared with standard cationic liposomes, this vector markedly increased cellular gene internalisation in vitro, enhanced the tumour-targeting effect in vivo and exhibited a significant antitumor effect in combination with adjuvant chloroquine. Considering the dramatic increase in RIP3 under the pathological condition of pancreatitis and the correlation between pancreatitis and necroptosis, non-HA-conjugated liposomes with the same formulation loaded with shRNA mRIP3-pDNA effectively controlled the disease by decreasing the serum amylase concentration and inflammatory cell infiltration. The versatile cationic liposomes loaded with plasmids with opposing functions in this study provide a new concept and method for both tumour therapy and pancreatitis therapy.

Dual-responsive (pH/temperature) Pluronic F-127 hydrogel drug delivery system for textile-based transdermal therapy

A dual-responsive hydrogel (pH/temperature) was developed from a thermos-responsive polymer, pluronic F-127 (PF127), and pH-responsive polymers, N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan (TMC) and polyethylene glycolated hyaluronic acid (PEG-HA). Gallic acid, the principal component of the traditional Chinese drug Cortex Moutan was loaded into the hydrogel (PF127/TMC/PEG-HA) for possible application in textile-based transdermal therapy as Cortex Moutan has been proven to be an effective drug for the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). TMC and PEG-HA were synthesized, characterized (1H-NMR and FTIR), and added to the formulations to enhance drug release from the hydrogels, and increase the drug targeting of the carriers. The thermo-responsive properties of the hydrogel were assessed by dynamic viscosity analysis and the tube inversion method, and the pH-responsiveness of the formulation was determined by changing the pH of the external media. Rheology study of the hydrogels showed that complex viscosity and storage/loss moduli for PF127/TMC/PEG-HA hydrogel formulation are higher than PF127 hydrogel. The microstructure analysis by reflection SAXS indicated similar type of frozen inhomogeneity of hydrogel formulations. Various characterizations such as FTIR, SEM, TEM, zeta potential, and degradation of the hydrogel formulation indicated that the PF127/TMC/PEG-HA hydrogel showed better physico-chemical properties and morphology than did the PF127 hydrogel, and drug release was also higher for the PF127/TMC/PEG-HA hydrogel than for PF127. The drug release from hydrogels followed more closely first-order rate model than other rate models.

Synergistic Enhancement of Cellular Uptake With CD44-Expressing Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma by Combining Cationic Liposome and Hyaluronic Acid-Lipid Conjugate

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a highly aggressive form of cancer, with a median survival of less than 1 year. It is well known that the hyaluronan (HA) receptor CD44 is highly expressed by MPM cells and is reported to be correlated with a poor prognosis. We herein report on the development of a new type if drug delivery system against CD44 that involves the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) equipped with a new type of HA derivative. In this study, we evaluated HA-lipid conjugation (HAL) via the end of the HA molecule through reductive amination, a process that allowed the carboxylate group to remain intact. As a result, the HAL-modified LNP appears to be a potent nanoparticle for dealing with MPM. Surprisingly, the use of a combination of a cationic lipid and HAL had a synergistic effect on cellular uptake in MPM and consequently permitted an anti-cancer drug such as cis-diamminedichloro-platinum(II) (CDDP). Intrapleural injection of CDDP-loaded HAL-LNP (1.5 mg/kg as CDDP) per week significantly suppressed the progression of this type of cancer in an MPM orthotopic model. These results suggest that HAL-modified LNP represents a potent delivery system for MPM cells that express high levels of CD44.

Transformative hyaluronic acid-based active targeting supramolecular nanoplatform improves long circulation and enhances cellular uptake in cancer therapy

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a natural ligand of tumor-targeted drug delivery systems (DDS) due to the relevant CD44 receptor overexpressed on tumor cell membranes. However, other HA receptors (HARE and LYVE-1) are also overexpressing in the reticuloendothelial system (RES). Therefore, polyethylene glycol (PEG) modification of HA-based DDS is necessary to reduce RES capture. Unfortunately, pegylation remarkably inhibits tumor cellular uptake and endosomal escapement, significantly compromising the in vivo antitumor efficacy. Herein, we developed a Dox-loaded HA-based transformable supramolecular nanoplatform (Dox/HCVBP) to overcome this dilemma. Dox/HCVBP contains a tumor extracellular acidity-sensitive detachable PEG shell achieved by a benzoic imine linkage. The in vitro and in vivo investigations further demonstrated that Dox/HCVBP could be in a "stealth" state at blood stream for a long circulation time due to the buried HA ligands and the minimized nonspecific interaction by PEG shell. However, it could transform into a "recognition" state under the tumor acidic microenvironment for efficient tumor cellular uptake due to the direct exposure of active targeting ligand HA following PEG shell detachment. Such a transformative concept provides a promising strategy to resolve the dilemma of natural ligand-based DDS with conflicting two processes of tumor cellular uptake and in vivo nonspecific biodistribution.

Cell Permeable NBD Peptide-Modified Liposomes by Hyaluronic Acid Coating for the Synergistic Targeted Therapy of Metastatic Inflammatory Breast Cancer

Chronic inflammation is closely related to the development, deterioration, and metastasis of tumors. Recently, many studies have shown that down-regulating the expression of inflammation by blocking nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathways could significantly inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. The combined application of curcumin (CUR) and celecoxib (CXB) has been proven to exert a synergistic antitumor effect via inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and STAT3. TAT-NBD (TN) peptide, a fusion peptide of NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO)-binding domain peptide (NBD) and cell-penetrating peptide (TAT), can selectively block NF-κB activating pathway resulting in tumor growth inhibition. In the present study, a novel TN-modified liposome coloading both CXB and CUR (TN-CCLP) at a synergistic ratio was first constructed with the property of synchronous release, then hyaluronic acid (HA) as CD44 targeting moiety was coated on the surface of the cationic liposome via electrostatic interaction to prepare the anionic HA/TN-CCLP. In vitro results of cytotoxicity, macrophage migration inhibition, and anti-inflammation efficacy revealed that TN-CCLP and HA/TN-CCLP were significantly superior to TN-LP and CCLP, while TN-CCLP exhibited better effects than HA/TN-CCLP due to higher cellular uptake ability. Different from in vitro data, after systematically treating 4T1 breast tumor-bearing mice, HA/TN-CCLP exerted the most striking effects on anti-inflammation, inhibition of macrophage recruitment, and antitumor because of the longest circulation time and maximum tumor accumulation. In particular, HA/TN-CCLP could availably block the lung metastasis of breast cancer. Taken together, the novel CD44 targeted TN-CCLP exhibited the potential for inhibiting tumor development and metastasis through improving inflammatory infiltration of tumor tissue.

Novel hyaluronic acid coated hydrophobically modified chitosan polyelectrolyte complex for the delivery of doxorubicin

The aim of this work was to examine the formation and properties of a novel polyelectrolyte complex of drug carrier system for the delivery of doxorubicin (DOX), which consists of hyaluronic acid (HA) coated hydrophobically modified chitosan (CS). Various batches of polyelectrolyte complexes with the molar ratio of deoxycholic acid (DCA) and chitosan (CS) of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 were prepared, and were termed as CS-DCA₁₀, CS-DCA₂₀, and CS-DCA₃₀ respectively. The samples were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nuclear magnetic resonance hydrogen spectrum (¹H NMR) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Particle sizes of synthesized polyelectrolyte complex nanoparticles (PCNs) were found to be in the range of 280-310 nm, larger than those of uncoated nanoparticles (~150 nm). The PCNs have large zeta potentials (about 26 mV) which make them stable and no sizes' change was determined. DOX could be easily incorporated into the PCNs with encapsulation efficiency (56%) and kept a sustained release manner without burst effect when exposed to PBS (pH 7.4) at 37 °C. Overall, these findings confirmed the potential of these PCNs for drug carrier and prolonged and sustained delivery in the bloodstream.

Strategies for the enhanced intracellular delivery of nanomaterials

The intracellular delivery of nanomaterials and drugs has been attracting increasing research interest, mainly because of their important effects and functions in several organelles. Targeting specific organelles can help treat or decrease the symptoms of diabetes, cancer, infectious, and autoimmune diseases. Tuning biological and chemical properties enables the creation of functionalized nanomaterials with enhanced intracellular uptake, ability to escape premature lysosome degradation, and to reach a specific target. Here, we provide an update of recent advances in the intracellular delivery mechanisms that could help drugs reach their target more efficiently.

Evaluation of hyaluronic acid-combined ternary complexes for serum-resistant and targeted gene delivery system

Branched polyethylenimine (bPEI) was well known as high transfection agent, which has many amine group. However, utilization of bPEI was limited due to high toxicity. To solve these problems, bPEI was introduced to low molecular weight water-soluble chitosan (LMWSC) with coupling agent. In addition, hyaluronic acid (HA), one of natural anion polymer, was introduced to binary complex of pDNA/bPEI-grafted LMWSC (LMPEI) to target the specific cancer cell and impart the serum resistant. Ternary complexes of pDNA/LMPEI/HA were prepared by electrostatic charge interaction and their binding affinity and DNase protection assay were conducted by gel retardation assay. Particle size of ternary complexes showed that had each 482 ± 245.4 (pDNA/LMPEI2%/HA, 1:16:1, w/w/w) and 410 ± 78.5 nm (pDNA/LMPEI4%/HA, 1:16:2, w/w/w). Moreover, to demonstrate serum-resistant effect of ternary complexes, particle size of them was measured according to incubated time (0-10 h) under serum condition. Transfection assay of ternary complexes showed that their transfection efficiency in CD44-receptor overexpressed HCT116 cell was higher than CD44-receptor negative CT26 cell. Additionally, intracellular uptake of ternary complexes with propidium iodide (PI)-labeled pDNA was observed to confirm targeting effect and cellular internalization by fluorescence microscopy. These results suggest that ternary complexes are superb gene carrier with excellent serum-resistant and high gene transfection.

AlPcS4-PDT for gastric cancer therapy using gold nanorod, cationic liposome, and Pluronic® F127 nanomicellar drug carriers

Purpose

As a promising photodynamic therapy (PDT) agent, Al(III) phthalocyanine chloride tetrasulfonic acid (AlPcS₄) provides deep penetration into tissue, high quantum yields, good photostability, and low photobleaching. However, its low delivery efficiency and high binding affinity to serum albumin cause its low penetration into cancer cells, further limiting its PDT effect on gastric cancer. In order to improve AlPcS₄/PDT effect, the AlPcS₄ delivery sys tems with different drug carriers were synthesized and investigated.

Materials and methods

Gold nanorods, cationic liposomes, and Pluronic^® F127 nanomicellars were used to formulate the AlPcS₄ delivery systems. The anticancer effect was evaluated by CCK-8 assay and colony formation assay. The delivery efficiency of AlPcS₄ and the binding affinity to serum proteins were determined by fluorescence intensity assay. The apoptosis and necrosis ability, reactive oxygen species and singlet oxygen generation, mitochondrial transmembrane potential and ([Ca²⁺]_i) concentration were further measured to evaluate the mechanism of cell death.

Results

The series of synthesized AlPcS₄ delivery systems with different drug carriers improve the limited PDT effect in varying degrees. In contrast, AlPcS₄ complex with gold nanorods has significant anticancer effects because gold nanorods are not only suitable for AlPcS₄ delivery, but also exhibit enhanced singlet oxygen generation effect and photothermal effect to induce cell death directly. Moreover, AlPcS₄ complex with cationic liposomes shows the potent inhibition effect because of its optimal AlPcS₄ delivery efficiency and ability to block serum albumin. In addition, AlPcS₄ complex with Pluronic F127 exhibits inferior PDT effect but presents lower cytotoxicity, slower dissociation rate, and longer retention time of incorporated drugs; thus, F127–AlPcS₄ is used for prolonged gastric cancer therapy.

Conclusion

The described AlPcS₄ drug delivery systems provide promising agents for gastric cancer therapy.

Fundamentals of siRNA and miRNA therapeutics and a review of targeted nanoparticle delivery systems in breast cancer

Gene silencing via RNA interference (RNAi) is rapidly evolving as a personalized approach to cancer treatment. The effector molecules-small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs)-can be used to silence or "switch off" specific cancer genes. Currently, the main barrier to implementing siRNA- and miRNA-based therapies in clinical practice is the lack of an effective delivery system that can protect the RNA molecules from nuclease degradation, deliver to them to tumor tissue, and release them into the cytoplasm of the target cancer cells, all without inducing adverse effects. Here, we review the fundamentals of RNAi, cell membrane transport pathways, and factors that affect intracellular delivery. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of nanoparticle delivery systems, with a focus on those that have been investigated in breast cancer in vivo.

Development and characterisation of chondroitin sulfate- and hyaluronic acid-incorporated sorbitan ester nanoparticles as gene delivery systems

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are natural polymers that are broadly used in gene delivery systems to increase stability as well as decrease toxicity and nonspecific interactions, thereby increasing transfection efficiency. In this work, we propose sorbitan ester-based lipid nanoparticles (SENS) functionalised with the GAGs chondroitin sulfate (CS) and hyaluronic acid (HA) as gene delivery systems. For this purpose, we describe the design and evaluation of these nanosystems loaded with plasmid DNA, including an evaluation of their physicochemical characteristics, stability properties, ability to protect and efficiently transfect cells with Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein plasmid (pEGFP) in vitro, and biocompatibility both in vitro and in vivo. We confirm that molecules with high biological value and targeting potential, such as HA and CS, can be successfully incorporated into our recently developed sorbitan ester-based nanoparticles (SENS) and that this incorporation leads to effective stabilisation of both nanosystems as well as protects plasmid DNA. We demonstrated that the aforementioned incorporation of HA and CS enables long-term stability of the nanosystems in both liquid and lyophilised states, which is a remarkable property that can aid in their transfer to industry. The ability of these functionalised nanosystems to transfect the A549 cell line without compromising cell viability was also shown, as well as their innocuous safety profile in vivo. Thus, we provide valuable evidence of the suitable properties and potential of these hybrid nanoparticles as gene delivery systems.

In situ dual-crosslinked nanoparticles for tumor targeting gene delivery

The instability of gene delivery systems and their "off-target" features are among the major hurdles in gene therapy. In this study, a facile fabrication platform is constructed to endow the gene delivery system with high stability in the circulation system and achieve targeted delivery of plasmid DNA (pDNA) into cancer cells. Aldehyde groups-bearing hyaluronic acid (HA-CHO) is initially synthesized through oxidation, and is then shielded on polyethylenimine/DNA (PEI/DNA) complex particles to form dual-crosslinked nanoparticles in situ. These nanoparticles simultaneously possess electrostatic and chemical crosslinks between outer layers and cores. The dual-crosslinking system further offers the following advantages when used for gene delivery. First, the two different in situ crosslinking routes strengthen nanoparticle stability. Second, targeting ligands on HA layers mediate specific recognition toward cancer cells. Cell and animal experiments demonstrate that the as-prepared complex particles exhibit enhanced stability in serum and excellent long circulation behavior in vivo. Third, the dual-crosslinked nanoparticles present good accumulation ability in tumors after intravenous injection into nude mice bearing HeLa tumors. Overall, the dual-crosslinking strategy is a promising solution for constructing an efficient gene delivery system.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

This manuscript focused on the in situ dual-crosslinked nanoparticles for tumor targeting pDNA delivery. The novel system is prepared by in situ shielding HA-CHO on PEI/DNA complexes. The electrostatic crosslink formed between carboxyl groups on HA-CHO and amine groups on PEI as well as the reaction between aldehyde groups on HA-CHO and amine groups on PEI contributes to the chemical crosslink. By introduction of HA-CHO on PEI/DNA complexes, they show promoting colloidal stability, enhanced cellular uptake and tumor targeting ability. The in vivo experiments further confirm the excellent ability of long circulation and tumor accumulation. Accordingly, HA-CHO2/PEI/DNA has great potential for tumor targeting antitumor therapy.

In vitro and ex vivo delivery of tailored siRNA-nanoliposomes for E2F1 silencing as a potential therapy for colorectal cancer

Tailored developed nanoliposomes loaded with a siRNA against the transcription factor E2F1 (siE2F1), were produced and delivered to human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell lines and to intestinal human biopsies. siE2F1 loaded nanoliposomes were produced through a dedicated ultrasound assisted technique producing particles with about 40nm size (Small Unilamellar Vesicles, SUVs) and 100% siRNA encapsulation efficiency. Compared to other production methods, the one proposed here can easily produce particles in the nanometric scale by suitable ultrasonic duty cycle treatments. Furthermore, SUVs have a high degree of size homogeneity, a relevant feature for uniform delivery behaviour. siE2F1-loaded SUVs demonstrated a very low cytotoxicity in cells when compared to a commercial transfection agent. Moreover, SUVs loaded with siE2F1 were effective in the down regulation of the target in cultured colon carcinoma cells and in the consequent reduction of cell growth. Finally, a remarkable uptake and target silencing efficiencies were observed in cultured human biopsy of colonic mucosa. In conclusion, whereas further studies in more complex models are required, the siE2F1-SUVs generated have the potential to contribute to the development of novel effective inflammatory bowel diseases-associated colorectal cancer therapies for a future personalized medicine.

Allele-specific silencing of mutant p53 attenuates dominant-negative and gain-of-function activities

Many p53 hotspot mutants not only lose the transcriptional activity, but also show dominant-negative (DN) and oncogenic gain-of-function (GOF) activities. Increasing evidence indicates that knockdown of mutant p53 (mutp53) in cancer cells reduces their aggressive properties, suggesting that survival and proliferation of cancer cells are, at least partially, dependent on the presence of mutp53. However, these p53 siRNAs can downregulate both wild-type p53 (wtp53) and mutp53, which limits their therapeutic applications. In order to specifically deplete mutp53, we have developed allele-specific siRNAs against p53 hotspot mutants and validated their biological effects in the absence or presence of wtp53. First, the mutp53-specific siRNAs selectively reduced protein levels of matched p53 mutants with minimal reduction in wtp53 levels. Second, downregulation of mutp53 in cancer cells expressing a mutp53 alone (p53mut) resulted in significantly decreased cell proliferation and migration. Third, transfection of mutp53-specific siRNAs in cancer cells expressing both wtp53 and mutp53 also reduced cell proliferation and migration with increased transcripts of p53 downstream target genes, which became further profound when cells were treated with an MDM2 inhibitor Nutlin-3a or a chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. These results indicate that depletion of mutp53 by its specific siRNA restored endogenous wtp53 activity in cells expressing both wtp53 and mutp53. This is the first study demonstrating biological effects and therapeutic potential of allele-specific silencing of mutp53 by mutp53-specific siRNAs in cancer cells expressing both wtp53 and mutp53, thus providing a novel strategy towards targeted cancer therapies.

Chitosan-based nanoparticles for survivin targeted siRNA delivery in breast tumor therapy and preventing its metastasis

Nanoparticle-mediated small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery is a promising therapeutic strategy in various cancers. However, it is difficult to deliver degradative siRNA to tumor tissue, and thus a safe and efficient vector for siRNA delivery is essential for cancer therapy. In this study, poly(ethylene glycol)-modified chitosan (PEG-CS) was synthesized successfully for delivering nucleic acid drug. We deemed that PEGylated CS could improve its solubility by forming a stable siRNA loaded in nanoparticles, and enhancing transfection efficiency of siRNA-loaded CS nanoparticles in cancer cell line. The research results showed that siRNA loaded in PEGylated CS (PEG-CS/siRNA) nanoparticles with smaller particle size had superior structural stability in the physical environment compared to CS nanoparticles. The data of in vitro antitumor activity revealed that 4T1 tumor cell growth was significantly inhibited and cellular uptake of PEG-CS/siRNA nanoparticles in 4T1 cells was dramatically enhanced compared to naked siRNA groups. The results from flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that PEG-CS/siRNA nanoparticles were more easily taken up than naked siRNA. Importantly, PEG-CS/siRNA nanoparticles significantly reduced the growth of xenograft tumors of 4T1 cells in vivo. It has been demonstrated that the PEG-CS is a safe and efficient vector for siRNA delivery, and it can effectively reduce tumor growth and prevent metastasis.

Carbohydrate-based amphiphilic nano delivery systems for cancer therapy

Nanoparticles (NPs) are novel drug delivery systems that have been attracting more and more attention in recent years, and have been used for the treatment of cancer, infection, inflammation and other diseases. Among the numerous classes of materials employed for constructing NPs, organic polymers are outstanding due to the flexibility of design and synthesis and the ease of modification and functionalization. In particular, NP based amphiphilic polymers make a great contribution to the delivery of poorly-water soluble drugs. For example, natural, biocompatible and biodegradable products like polysaccharides are widely used as building blocks for the preparation of such drug delivery vehicles. This review will detail carbohydrate based amphiphilic polymeric systems for cancer therapy. Specifically, it focuses on the nature of the polymer employed for the preparation of targeted nanocarriers, the synthetic methods, as well as strategies for the application and evaluation of biological activity. Applications of the amphiphilic polymer systems include drug delivery, gene delivery, photosensitizer delivery, diagnostic imaging and specific ligand-assisted cellular uptake. As a result, a thorough understanding of the relationship between chemical structure and biological properties facilitate the optimal design and rational clinical application of the resulting carbohydrate based nano delivery systems for cancer therapy.

Targeting cancer with hyaluronic acid-based nanocarriers: recent advances and translational perspectives

Hyaluronic acid is a natural polysaccharide that has been widely explored for the development of anticancer therapies due to its ability to target cancer cells. Moreover, advances made in the last decade have revealed the versatility of this biomaterial in the design of multifunctional carriers, intended for the delivery of a variety of bioactive molecules, including polynucleotides, immunomodulatory drugs and imaging agents. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of the major recent achievements in this field, highlighting the application of the newly developed nanostructures in combination therapies, immunomodulation and theranostics. Finally, we will discuss the main challenges and technological advances that will allow these carriers to be considered as candidates for clinical development.

Reversal of multidrug resistance in breast cancer MCF-7/ADR cells by h-R3-siMDR1-PAMAM complexes

Multidrug resistance (MDR) among breast cancer cells is the paramount obstacle for the successful chemotherapy. In this study, anti-EGFR antibody h-R3 was designed to self-assembled h-R3-siRNA-PAMAM-complexes (HSPCs) via electrostatic interactions for siRNA delivery. The physicochemical characterization, cell uptake, MDR1 silencing efficiency, cell migration, cell growth and cell apoptosis were investigated. The HSPCs presented lower cytotoxicity, higher cellular uptake and enhanced endosomal escape ability. Also, HSPCs encapsulating siMDR1 knockdowned 99.4% MDR1 gene with up to ∼6 times of enhancement compared to naked siMDR1, increased the doxorubicin accumulation, down-regulated P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression and suppressed cellular migration in breast cancer MCF-7/ADR cells. Moreover, the combination of anticancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) and siMDR1 loaded HSPCs showed synergistic effect on overcoming MDR, which inhibited cell growth and induced cell apoptosis. This h-R3-mediated siMDR1 delivery system could be a promising vector for effective siRNA therapy of drug resistant breast cancer.

Folate-Functionalized Magnetic-Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Drug/Gene Codelivery To Potentiate the Antitumor Efficacy

An appropriate codelivery system for chemotherapeutic agents and nucleic acid drugs will provide a more efficacious approach for the treatment of cancer. Combining gene therapy with chemotherapeutics in a single delivery system is more effective than individual delivery systems carrying either gene or drug. In this work, we developed folate (FA) receptor targeted magnetic-mesoporous silica nanoparticles for the codelivery of VEGF shRNA and doxorubicin (DOX) (denoted as M-MSN(DOX)/PEI-FA/VEGF shRNA). Our data showed that M-MSN(DOX)/PEI-FA could strongly condense VEGF shRNA at weight ratios of 30:1, and possesses higher stability against DNase I digestion and sodium heparin. In vitro antitumor activity assays revealed that HeLa cell growth was significantly inhibited. The intracellular accumulation of DOX by confocal microscopy and fluorescence spectrophotometry showed that M-MSN(DOX)/PEI-FA were more easily taken up than nontargeted M-MSN(DOX). Quantitative PCR and ELISA data revealed that M-MSN/PEI-FA/VEGF shRNA induced a significant decrease in VEGF expression as compared to cells treated with either the control or other complexes. The invasion and migration phenotypes of the HUVECs were significantly decrease after coculture with MSN/PEI-FA/VEGF shRNA nanocomplexes-treated HeLa cells. The approach provides a potential strategy to treat cancer by a singular nanoparticle delivery system.

Hyaluronic Acid-Modified Cationic Lipid-PLGA Hybrid Nanoparticles as a Nanovaccine Induce Robust Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses

Here, we investigated the use of hyaluronic acid (HA)-decorated cationic lipid-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) acid (PLGA) hybrid nanoparticles (HA-DOTAP-PLGA NPs) as vaccine delivery vehicles, which were originally developed for the cytosolic delivery of genes. Our results demonstrated that after the NPs uptake by dendritic cells (DCs), some of the antigens that were encapsulated in HA-DOTAP-PLGA NPs escaped to the cytosolic compartment, and whereas some of the antigens remained in the endosomal/lysosomal compartment, where both MHC-I and MHC-II antigen presentation occurred. Moreover, HA-DOTAP-PLGA NPs led to the up-regulation of MHC, costimulatory molecules, and cytokines. In vivo experiments further revealed that more powerful immune responses were induced from mice immunized with HA-DOTAP-PLGA NPs when compared with cationic lipid-PLGA nanoparticles and free ovalbumin (OVA); the responses included antigen-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses, the production of antigen-specific IgG antibodies and the generation of memory CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Overall, these data demonstrate the high potential of HA-DOTAP-PLGA NPs for use as vaccine delivery vehicles to elevate cellular and humoral immune responses.

Chemosensitization of doxorubicin in multidrug-resistant cells by unimolecular micelles via increased cellular accumulation and apoptosis

OBJECTIVES

Unimolecular micelles were prepared by modification of polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers using Pluronic F127 (PF127), which is expected to reverse multidrug resistance (MDR). And the reversal mechanisms have been studied.

METHODS

Characterization of the products was carried on. MTT assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the DOX-loaded conjugates. Cellular uptake study was measured by confocal laser scanning microscope and flow cytometry. Apoptosis assay was identified by Annexin V-FITC/PI apoptosis assay and Hoechst 33 342 staining.

KEY FINDINGS

Improved cytotoxicity of DOX-loaded conjugates in MCF-7/ADR cells (as much as 33-fold according to the IC50 values) was observed in contrast with that of free DOX. The DOX-loaded conjugates induced a much quicker and 100% uptake in MCF-7/ADR cells, and more than fivefold accumulation of DOX-loaded conjugates was observed compared with free DOX. Apoptosis assay showed that DOX-loaded conjugates decreased the cell viability from 81.87 ± 5.94% to 54.83 ± 3.63% (DOX concentration 2 μg/ml). At 48 h, more accumulation and distribution in the nuclei were observed after treatment with DOX-loaded conjugates.

CONCLUSIONS

PF127-PAMAM conjugates showed superiority in the treatment of MCF-7/ADR, which implied the potential vehicles of anticancer drugs for the reversal of MDR.

How can nanomedicines overcome cellular-based anticancer drug resistance?

This review discusses the mechanisms of anticancer drug resistance according to its cellular level of action and outlines the nanomedicine-based strategies adopted to overcome it.

Enhancing the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic properties of therapeutic nucleotides using lipid nanoparticle systems

Although activity has been reported in vivo, free nucleic acid-based drugs are rapidly degraded and cleared following systemic administration. To address these challenges and improve the potency and bioavailability of genetic drugs, significant efforts have been made to develop effective delivery systems of which lipid nanoparticles (LNP) represent the most advanced technology currently available. In this review, we will describe and discuss the improvements to the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of nucleic acid-based drugs mediated by LNP delivery. It is envisioned that the significant improvements in potency and safety, largely driven by the development of LNP encapsulated siRNA drugs, will be translatable to other types of genetic drugs and enable the rapid development of potent molecular tools and drugs.

Polysaccharides for the Delivery of Antitumor Drugs

Among the several delivery materials available so far, polysaccharides represent very attractive molecules as they can undergo a wide range of chemical modifications, are biocompatible, biodegradable, and have low immunogenic properties. Thus, polysaccharides can contribute to significantly overcome the limitation in the use of many types of drugs, including anti-cancer drugs. The use of conventional anti-cancer drugs is hampered by their high toxicity, mostly depending on the indiscriminate targeting of both cancer and normal cells. Additionally, for nucleic acid based drugs (NABDs), an emerging class of drugs with potential anti-cancer value, the practical use is problematic. This mostly depends on their fast degradation in biological fluids and the difficulties to cross cell membranes. Thus, for both classes of drugs, the development of optimal delivery materials is crucial. Here we discuss the possibility of using different kinds of polysaccharides, such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, dextran, and pullulan, as smart drug delivery materials. We first describe the main features of polysaccharides, then a general overview about the aspects ruling drug release mechanisms and the pharmacokinetic are reported. Finally, notable examples of polysaccharide-based delivery of conventional anti-cancer drugs and NABDs are reported. Whereas additional research is required, the promising results obtained so far, fully justify further efforts, both in terms of economic support and investigations in the field of polysaccharides as drug delivery materials.