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Tommasino C, Auriemma G, Sardo C, Alvarez-Lorenzo C, Garofalo E, Morello S, Falcone G, Aquino RP. 3D printed macroporous scaffolds of PCL and inulin-g-P(D,L)LA for bone tissue engineering applications. Int J Pharm 2023:123093. [PMID: 37268029 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Bone repair and tissue-engineering (BTE) approaches require novel biomaterials to produce scaffolds with required structural and biological characteristics and enhanced performances with respect to those currently available. In this study, PCL/INU-PLA hybrid biomaterial was prepared by blending of the aliphatic polyester poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) with the amphiphilic graft copolymer Inulin-g-poly(D,L)lactide (INU-PLA) synthetized from biodegradable inulin (INU) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA). The hybrid material was suitable to be processed using fused filament fabrication 3D printing (FFF-3DP) technique rendering macroporous scaffolds. PCL and INU-PLA were firstly blended as thin films through solvent-casting method, and then extruded by hot melt extrusion (HME) in form of filaments processable by FFF-3DP. The physicochemical characterization of the hybrid new material showed high homogeneity, improved surface wettability/hydrophilicity as compared to PCL alone, and right thermal properties for FFF process. The 3D printed scaffolds exhibited dimensional and structural parameters very close to those of the digital model, and mechanical performances compatible with the human trabecular bone. In addition, in comparison to PCL, hybrid scaffolds showed an enhancement of surface properties, swelling ability, and in vitro biodegradation rate. In vitro biocompatibility screening through hemolysis assay, LDH cytotoxicity test on human fibroblasts, CCK-8 cell viability, and osteogenic activity (ALP evaluation) assays on human mesenchymal stem cells showed favorable results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Tommasino
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy; PhD Program in Drug Discovery and Development, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano, Italy
| | - Giulia Auriemma
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy. gauriemma%
| | - Carla Sardo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Carmen Alvarez-Lorenzo
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, I+D Farma (GI-1645), Facultad de Farmacia, Instituto de Materiales (IMATUS), Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Spain
| | - Emilia Garofalo
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Silvana Morello
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Giovanni Falcone
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Rita P Aquino
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, I-84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
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Radivojev S, Luschin-Ebengreuth G, Pinto JT, Laggner P, Cavecchi A, Cesari N, Cella M, Melli F, Paudel A, Fröhlich E. Impact of simulated lung fluid components on the solubility of inhaled drugs and predicted in vivo performance. Int J Pharm 2021; 606:120893. [PMID: 34274456 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Orally inhaled products (OIPs) are gaining increased attention, as pulmonary delivery is a preferred route for the treatment of various diseases. Yet, the field of inhalation biopharmaceutics is still in development phase. For a successful correlation between various in vitro data obtained during formulation characterization and in vivo performance, it is necessary to understand the impact of parameters such as solubility and dissolution of drugs. In this work, we used in vitro-in silico feedback-feedforward approach to gain a better insight into the biopharmaceutics behavior of inhaled Salbutamol Sulphate (SS) and Budesonide (BUD). The thorough characterization of the in vitro test media and the impact of different in vitro fluid components such as lipids and protein on the solubility of aforementioned drugs was studied. These results were subsequently used as an input into the developed in silico models to investigate potential PK parameter changes in vivo. Results revealed that media comprising lipids and albumin were the most biorelevant and impacted the solubility of BUD the most. On the contrary, no notable impact was seen in case of SS. The use of simple media such as phosphate buffer saline (PBS) might be sufficient to use in solubility studies of the highly soluble and permeable drugs. However, its use for the poorly soluble drugs is limited due to the greater potential for interactions within in vivo environment. The use of in silico tools showed that the model response varies, depending on the used media. Therefore, this work highlights the relevance of carefully selecting the media composition when investigating solubility and dissolution behavior, especially in the early phases of drug development and of poorly soluble drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snezana Radivojev
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, Graz 8010, Austria; Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Stiftingtalstraße 24, Graz 8010, Austria
| | | | - Joana T Pinto
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Peter Laggner
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, Graz 8010, Austria
| | | | - Nicola Cesari
- Chiesi Farmaceutici S.p.A., Via Palermo, 26 A, Parma, 43122, Italy
| | - Massimo Cella
- Chiesi Farmaceutici S.p.A., Via Palermo, 26 A, Parma, 43122, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Melli
- Chiesi Farmaceutici S.p.A., Via Palermo, 26 A, Parma, 43122, Italy
| | - Amrit Paudel
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, Graz 8010, Austria; Institute of Process and Particle Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 13, Graz, 8010, Austria.
| | - Eleonore Fröhlich
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, Graz 8010, Austria; Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Stiftingtalstraße 24, Graz 8010, Austria.
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Pinto JT, Cachola I, F. Pinto J, Paudel A. Understanding Carrier Performance in Low-Dose Dry Powder Inhalation: An In Vitro -In Silico Approach. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13030297. [PMID: 33668317 PMCID: PMC8025906 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13030297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to support drug product development has become increasingly popular. The in vitro characterization of the materials of the formulation provides valuable descriptors for the in silico prediction of the drug’s pharmacokinetic profile. Thus, the application of an in vitro–in silico framework can be decisive towards the prediction of the in vivo performance of a new medicine. By applying such an approach, this work aimed to derive mechanistic based insights into the potential impact of carrier particles and powder bulk properties on the in vivo performance of a lactose-based dry powder inhaler (DPI). For this, a PBPK model was developed using salbutamol sulphate (SS) as a model drug and the in vitro performance of its low-dose blends (2% w/w) with different types of lactose particles was investigated using different DPI types (capsule versus reservoir) at distinct airflows. Likewise, the influence of various carrier’s particle and bulk properties, device type and airflow were investigated in silico. Results showed that for the capsule-based device, low-dose blends of SS had a better performance, when smaller carrier particles (Dv0.5 ≈ 50 μm) with about 10% of fines were used. This resulted in a better predicted bioavailability of the drug for all the tested airflows. For the reservoir type DPI, the mean particle size (Dv0.5) was identified as the critical parameter impacting performance. Shear cell and air permeability or compressibility measurements, particle size distribution by pressure titration and the tensile strength of the selected lactose carrier powders were found useful to generate descriptors that could anticipate the potential in vivo performance of the tested DPI blends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana T. Pinto
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria;
- Correspondence: (J.T.P.); (A.P.); Tel.: +43-316-873-30975 (J.T.P.); +43-316-873-30912 (A.P.)
| | - Inês Cachola
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria;
| | - João F. Pinto
- iMed.ULisboa–Research Institute for Medicines, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Amrit Paudel
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH, Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria;
- Institute of Process and Particle Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 13, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Correspondence: (J.T.P.); (A.P.); Tel.: +43-316-873-30975 (J.T.P.); +43-316-873-30912 (A.P.)
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Shi C, Ignjatović J, Liu T, Han M, Cun D, Đuriš J, Yang M, Cvijić S. In vitro - in vivo - in silico approach in the development of inhaled drug products: Nanocrystal-based formulations with budesonide as a model drug. Asian J Pharm Sci 2021; 16:350-362. [PMID: 34276823 PMCID: PMC8261257 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajps.2020.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to understand the absorption patterns of three different kinds of inhaled formulations via in silico modeling using budesonide (BUD) as a model drug. The formulations investigated in this study are: (i) commercially available micronized BUD mixed with lactose (BUD-PT), (ii) BUD nanocrystal suspension (BUD-NC), (iii) BUD nanocrystals embedded hyaluronic acid microparticles (BUD-NEM). The deposition patterns of the three inhaled formulations in the rats’ lungs were determined in vivo and in silico predicted, which were used as inputs in GastroPlus™ software to predict drug absorption following aerosolization of the tested formulations. BUD pharmacokinetics, estimated based on intravenous data in rats, was used to establish a drug-specific in silico absorption model. The BUD-specific in silico model revealed that drug pulmonary solubility and absorption rate constant were the key factors affecting pulmonary absorption of BUD-NC and BUD-NEM, respectively. In the case of BUD-PT, the in silico model revealed significant gastrointestinal absorption of BUD, which could be overlooked by traditional in vivo experimental observation. This study demonstrated that in vitro-in vivo-in silico approach was able to identify the key factors that influence the absorption of different inhaled formulations, which may facilitate the development of orally inhaled formulations with different drug release/absorption rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changzhi Shi
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road No. 103, 110016 Shenyang, China
| | - Jelisaveta Ignjatović
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology, University of Belgrade-Faculty of Pharmacy, Vojvode Stepe 450, 11221 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Tingting Liu
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road No. 103, 110016 Shenyang, China
| | - Meihua Han
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road No. 103, 110016 Shenyang, China
| | - Dongmei Cun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road No. 103, 110016 Shenyang, China
| | - Jelena Đuriš
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology, University of Belgrade-Faculty of Pharmacy, Vojvode Stepe 450, 11221 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Mingshi Yang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road No. 103, 110016 Shenyang, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sandra Cvijić
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology, University of Belgrade-Faculty of Pharmacy, Vojvode Stepe 450, 11221 Belgrade, Serbia
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Cvijić S, Ignjatović J, Parojčić J, Ibrić S. The emerging role of physiologically-based pharmacokinetic/biopharmaceutics modeling in formulation development. ARHIV ZA FARMACIJU 2021. [DOI: 10.5937/arhfarm71-32479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Computer-based (in silico) modeling & simulation tools have been embraced in different fields of pharmaceutics for a variety of applications. Among these, physiologically-based pharmacokinetic/biopharmaceutics modeling (PBPK/PBBM) emerged as a particularly useful tool in formulation development. PBPK/PBBM facilitated strategies have been increasingly evaluated over the past few years, as demonstrated by several reports from the pharmaceutical industry, and a number of research and review papers on this subject. Also, the leading regulatory authorities have recently issued guidance on the use of PBPK modeling in formulation design. In silico PBPK models can comprise different dosing routes (oral, intraoral, parenteral, inhalation, ocular, dermal etc.), although the majority of published examples refer to modeling of oral drugs performance. In order to facilitate the use of PBPK modeling tools, a couple of companies have launched commercially available software such as GastroPlus™, Simcyp™ PBPK Simulator and PK-Sim®. This paper highlights various application fields of PBPK/PBBM modeling, along with the basic principles, advantages and limitations of this approach, and provides relevant examples to demonstrate the practical utility of modeling & simulation tools in different stages of formulation development.
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Huang WD, Xu X, Wang HL, Huang JX, Zuo XH, Lu XJ, Liu XL, Yu DG. Electrosprayed Ultra-Thin Coating of Ethyl Cellulose on Drug Nanoparticles for Improved Sustained Release. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10091758. [PMID: 32899956 PMCID: PMC7557748 DOI: 10.3390/nano10091758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In nanopharmaceutics, polymeric coating is a popular strategy for modifying the drug release kinetics and, thus, new methods for implementing the nanocoating processes are highly desired. In the present study, a modified coaxial electrospraying process was developed to formulate an ultra-thin layer of ethyl cellulose (EC) on a medicated composite core consisting of tamoxifen citrate (TAM) and EC. A traditional single-fluid blending electrospraying and its monolithic EC-TAM nanoparticles (NPs) were exploited to compare. The modified coaxial processes were demonstrated to be more continuous and robust. The created NPs with EC coating had a higher quality than the monolithic ones in terms of the shape, surface smoothness, and the uniform size distribution, as verified by the SEM and TEM results. XRD patterns suggested that TAM presented in all the NPs in an amorphous state thanks to the fine compatibility between EC and TAM, as indicated by the attenuated total reflection (ATR)-FTIR spectra. In vitro dissolution tests demonstrated that the NPs with EC coating required a time period of 7.58 h, 12.79 h, and 28.74 h for an accumulative release of 30%, 50%, and 90% of the loaded drug, respectively. The protocols reported here open a new way for developing novel medicated nanoparticles with functional coating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Dong Huang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (W.-D.H.); (X.-H.Z.)
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Mine Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (H.-L.W.); (J.-X.H.)
| | - Xizi Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China;
| | - Han-Lin Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Mine Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (H.-L.W.); (J.-X.H.)
| | - Jie-Xun Huang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Mine Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (H.-L.W.); (J.-X.H.)
| | - Xiao-Hua Zuo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (W.-D.H.); (X.-H.Z.)
| | - Xiao-Ju Lu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (W.-D.H.); (X.-H.Z.)
- Correspondence: (X.-J.L.); (X.-L.L.); (D.-G.Y.); Tel.: +86-714-6348814 (X.-J.L.); +86-714-6368937 (X.-L.L.); +86-21-55270632 (D.-G.Y.)
| | - Xian-Li Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Mine Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China; (H.-L.W.); (J.-X.H.)
- Correspondence: (X.-J.L.); (X.-L.L.); (D.-G.Y.); Tel.: +86-714-6348814 (X.-J.L.); +86-714-6368937 (X.-L.L.); +86-21-55270632 (D.-G.Y.)
| | - Deng-Guang Yu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China;
- Correspondence: (X.-J.L.); (X.-L.L.); (D.-G.Y.); Tel.: +86-714-6348814 (X.-J.L.); +86-714-6368937 (X.-L.L.); +86-21-55270632 (D.-G.Y.)
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Radivojev S, Pinto JT, Fröhlich E, Paudel A. Insights into DPI sensitivity to humidity: An integrated in-vitro-in-silico risk-assessment. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2019.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Walenga RL, Babiskin AH, Zhao L. In Silico Methods for Development of Generic Drug-Device Combination Orally Inhaled Drug Products. CPT-PHARMACOMETRICS & SYSTEMS PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 8:359-370. [PMID: 31044532 PMCID: PMC6618094 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The development of generic, single‐entity, drug–device combination products for orally inhaled drug products is challenging in part because of the complex nature of device design characteristics and the difficulties associated with establishing bioequivalence for a locally acting drug product delivered to the site of action in the lung. This review examines in silico models that may be used to support the development of generic orally inhaled drug products and how model credibility may be assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross L Walenga
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew H Babiskin
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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Coupled in silico platform: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling. Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 113:171-184. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Tierney T, Bodnár K, Rasmuson Å, Hudson S. Carrier particle design for stabilization and isolation of drug nanoparticles. Int J Pharm 2016; 518:111-118. [PMID: 27884714 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles of poorly water-soluble drugs were prepared in suspension via antisolvent precipitation in order to improve their dissolution behaviour. Insoluble, surface-functionalized, micron-range, clay carrier particles were employed for the dual purpose of stabilizing the nanoparticles in suspended state, and facilitating their unhindered isolation to solid state; often a challenging step in nanoparticle production. The carrier particles, which were functionalized with an optimal level of cationic polymer (protamine), attracted negatively-charged nanoparticles to their surface as a uniform and segregated nanoparticle layer, at drug loadings up to 9% w/w. By using carrier particles to stabilise the nanoparticles on their surface, the traditionally used solubilised nanosuspension stabilisers could be eliminated, thus avoiding time-consuming stabiliser screening tests. The carrier particle system facilitated stabilisation of nanoparticles in suspension, isolation of nanoparticles to the solid state via filtration, and preservation of fast nanoparticle-induced dissolution rates of the dried nanoparticle-carrier composites, indicating preservation of their high surface area during drying. The process was validated with two poorly water-soluble BCS Class II drugs, fenofibrate and mefenamic acid, both of which demonstrated negative surface charge in aqueous suspension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Tierney
- Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Department of Chemical Sciences, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
| | - Katalin Bodnár
- Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Department of Chemical Sciences, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
| | - Åke Rasmuson
- Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Department of Chemical Sciences, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
| | - Sarah Hudson
- Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Department of Chemical Sciences, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
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