Superiority of aromatase inhibitor and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor combined delivery: Hyaluronate-targeted versus PEGylated protamine nanocapsules for breast cancer therapy

Emerging COX-2 inhibitors-based nanotherapeutics for cancer diagnosis and treatment

Increasing evidence has showed that tumorigenesis is closely linked to inflammation, regulated by multiple signaling pathways. Among these, the cyclooxygenase-2/prostaglandin E2 (COX-2/PGE2) axis plays a crucial role in the progression of both inflammation and cancer. Inhibiting the activity of COX-2 can reduce PGE2 secretion, thereby suppressing tumor growth. Therefore, COX-2 inhibitors are considered potential therapeutic agents for cancers. However, their clinical applications are greatly hindered by poor physicochemical properties and serious adverse effects. Fortunately, the advent of nanotechnology offers solutions to these limitations, enhancing drug delivery efficiency and mitigating adverse effects. Given the considerable progress in this area, it is timely to review emerging COX-2 inhibitors-based nanotherapeutics for cancer diagnosis and therapy. In this review, we first outline the various antineoplastic mechanisms of COX-2 inhibitors, then comprehensively summarize COX-2 inhibitors-based nanotherapeutics for cancer monotherapy, combination therapy, and diagnosis. Finally, we highlight and discuss future perspectives and challenges in the development of COX-2 inhibitors-based nanomedicine.

Advances, limitations and perspectives in the use of celecoxib-loaded nanocarriers in therapeutics of cancer

Cancer is highlighted as a major global health challenge in the XXI century. The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme rises as a widespread tumor progression marker. Celecoxib (CXB) is a selective COX-2 inhibitor used in adjuvant cancer therapy, but high concentrations are required in humans. In this sense, the development of nanocarriers has been proposed once they can improve the biopharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacological properties of drugs. In this context, this article reviews the progress in the development of CXB-loaded nanocarriers over the past decade and their prospects. Recent advances in the field of CXB-loaded nanocarriers demonstrate the use of complex formulations and the increasing importance of in vivo studies. The types of CXB-loaded nanocarriers that have been developed are heterogeneous and based on polymers and lipids together or separately. It was found that the work on CXB-loaded nanocarriers is carried out using established techniques and raw materials, such as poly (lactic-co-glicolic acid), cholesterol, phospholipids and poly(ethyleneglycol). The main improvements that have been achieved are the use of cell surface ligands, the simultaneous delivery of different synergistic agents, and the presence of materials that can provide imaging properties and other advanced features. The combination of CXB with other anti-inflammatory drugs and/or apoptosis inducers appears to hold effective pharmacological promise. The greatest advance to date from a clinical perspective is the ability of CXB to enhance the cytotoxic effects of established chemotherapeutic agents.

Surface modified Genistein phytosome for Breast Cancer Treatment: In-vitro Appraisal, Pharmacokinetics, and In-vivo Antitumor Efficacy

Based on phytosomes advantages over liposomes, hyaluronic acid (HA) with/out pegylated phospholipid was used to develop surface-modified genistein (Gen) phytosome as Gen pegylated hyaluophytosomes (G-PHA) and Gen hyaluophytosomes (G-HA) as novel delivery systems for breast cancer treatment. In this study, in-vitro characterization of G-HA and G-PHA shows PS 144.2 ±1.266 nm and 220.3 ±2.51 nm, ZP -30.9 ±0.75 and -32.06 ±0.305 respectively. Morphological elucidation shows HA covers the surface of G-HA and the presence of a transparent layer of PEG surrounding G-PHA. In-vitro release shows a significant slow Gen release from G-HA, and G-PHA compared to Gen solution and Gen phytosomes. In-vivo bioavailability data shows improvement in bioavailability for G-HA and G-PHA compared to Gen suspension (AUC_0- T: :3.563 ±0.067, 2.092 ±0.058, 0.374 ±0.085 µg/ml*h respectively). Therapeutic evaluation of the prepared targeted formulations was carried out by subcutaneous injection in an EAC-induced breast cancer model in mice. G-HA and G-PHA show a promising chemotherapeutic effect in terms of lowering the tumor size and tumor biomarkers (CEA: -34.6, -44.7 & CA15.3: -77.8, -81.6 respectively). This reduction in their values compared to Gen phytosomes, Gen suspension, and the control group is attributed to high Gen accumulation at the target organ owing to targeting properties of HA that are used in phytosomal surface modification in G-HA. Additionally, the presence of MPEG₂₀₀₀-DSPE in G-PHA tends to improve interstitium lymphatic drainage following SC administration, resulting in maximizing the therapeutic benefits of breast cancer despite the difference in pharmacokinetics behavior compared to G-HA. These formulations can be further studied for metastatic breast cancer.

Identification of novel COX-2 / CYP19A1 axis involved in the mesothelioma pathogenesis opens new therapeutic opportunities

BACKGROUND

Based on previous studies highlighting that the induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and high prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels contribute to the pathogenesis of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), and that aromatase (CYP19A1), an enzyme that plays a key role in estrogen biosynthesis, along with estradiol (E2) were expressed in MPM, this study aimed to investigate the possible interplay between COX-2 and CYP19A1 in the pathogenesis of mesothelioma, as well as the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The interaction between COX-2 and CYP19A1 was first investigated on different MPM lines upon PGE2, and COX-2 inhibitor (rofecoxib) treatment by western blot, RT-PCR. The key regulatory pathways involved in the COX-2 and CYP19A1 axis were further studied in MPM cells, after rofecoxib and exemestane (CYP19A1 inhibitor) treatment in monotherapy and in combination, by cell cycle distribution, western blot, and combination index analysis. To explore the role of COX-2/CYP19A1 axis in 3D preclinical models of MPM cells, we analyzed the effect of combination of COX-2 and CYP19A1 inhibitors in mesosphere formation. Immunohistochemical analysis of MPM mesosphere and specimens was utilized to evaluate the involvement of COX-2 on the CYP19A1 activity and the relationship between E2 and COX-2.

RESULTS

PGE2 or rofecoxib treatment caused in MPM cells an increased or decreased, respectively, CYP19A1 expression at mRNA and protein levels. The effect of rofecoxib and exemestane combination in MPM cell proliferation was synergistic. Activation of caspase-3 and cleavage of PARP confirmed an apoptotic death for MPM cell lines. Increased expression levels of p53, p21, and p27, downregulation of cyclin D1 and inhibition of Akt activation (pAKT) were also found. The antagonistic effect of rofecoxib and exemestane combination found only in one cell line, was reverted by pretreatment with MK2206, a pAKT inhibitor, indicating pAKT as an actionable mediator in the COX-2-CYP19A1 axis. Reduction of size and sphere-forming efficiency in MPM spheres after treatment with both inhibitor and a decrease in COX-2 and E2 staining was found. Moreover, immunohistochemical analysis of 46 MPM samples showed a significant positive correlation between COX-2 and E2.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the results highlighted a novel COX-2/CYP19A1 axis in the pathogenesis of MPM that can be pharmacologically targeted, consequently opening up new therapeutic options.

Celecoxib repurposing in cancer therapy: molecular mechanisms and nanomedicine-based delivery technologies

While cancer remains a significant global health problem, advances in cancer biology, deep understanding of its underlaying mechanism and identification of specific molecular targets allowed the development of new therapeutic options. Drug repurposing poses several advantages as reduced cost and better safety compared with new compounds development. COX-2 inhibitors are one of the most promising drug classes for repurposing in cancer therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the detailed mechanism and rationale of COX-2 inhibitors as anticancer agents and we highlight the most promising research efforts on nanotechnological approaches to enhance COX-2 inhibitors delivery with special focus on celecoxib as the most widely studied agent for chemoprevention or combined with chemotherapeutic and herbal drugs for combating various cancers.

Recent advances in polymer shell oily-core nanocapsules for drug-delivery applications

Polymeric nanocapsules are vesicular drug-delivery systems composed of an inner oily reservoir surrounded by polymeric membranes. Nanocapsules have various advantages over other nanovesicular systems such as providing controlled drug release properties. We discuss the recent advances in polymeric shell oily-core nanocapsules, illustrating the different types of polymers used and their implementation. Nanocapsules can be utilized for many purposes, especially encapsulation of highly lipophilic drugs. They have been shown to have variable applications, especially in cancer therapy, due to the ability of the polymeric shell to direct the loaded drugs to their target sites, as well as their high internalization efficacy. Those productive applications guaranteed their high potential as drug-delivery systems. However, their clinical development is still in an early stage.

Lactoferrin-dual drug nanoconjugate: Synergistic anti-tumor efficacy of docetaxel and the NF-κB inhibitor celastrol

Despite the progress in cancer nanotherapeutics, some obstacles still impede the success of nanocarriers and hinder their clinical translation. Low drug loading, premature drug release, off-target toxicity and multi-drug resistance are among the most difficult challenges. Lactoferrin (LF) has demonstrated a great tumor targeting capacity via its high binding affinity to low density lipoprotein (LDL) and transferrin (Tf) receptors overexpressed by various cancer cells. Herein, docetaxel (DTX) and celastrol (CST) could be successfully conjugated to LF backbone for synergistic breast cancer therapy. Most importantly, the conjugate self-assembled forming nanoparticles of 157.8 nm with elevated loading for both drugs (6.94 and 5.98% for DTX and CST, respectively) without risk of nanocarrier instability. Moreover, the nanoconjugate demonstrated enhanced in vivo anti-tumor efficacy in breast cancer-bearing mice, as reflected by a reduction in tumor volume, prolonged survival rate and significant suppression of NF-κB p65, TNF-α, COX-2 and Ki-67 expression levels compared to the group given free combined DTX/CST therapy and to positive control. This study demonstrated the proof-of-principle for dual drug coupling to LF as a versatile nanoplatform that could augment their synergistic anticancer efficacy.

Co-Administration of Tretinoin Enhances the Anti-Cancer Efficacy of Etoposide via Tumor-Targeted Green Nano-Micelles

Herein we report promoted anti-cancer activity via a combination strategy of synergistic chemotherapy/retinoid-based breast cancer therapy with shell-stabilized micellar green nanomedicine. Amphiphilic zein-chondroitin sulfate (ChS)-based copolymeric micelles (PMs) were successfully developed via carbodiimide coupling for concomitant delivery of etoposide (ETP) and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) to breast cancer. The micelles exhibited low critical micellar concentration (CMC) of 0.008 mg/mL with high encapsulation efficiencies of ETP and ATRA (61.2 and 84.29%, respectively). Calcium-mediated crosslinking of the anionic ChS micellar shell resulted in prolonged drug release with small micellar size of 222.7 nm. The micelles exhibited augmented internalization into MCF-7 breast cancer cells by virtue of ChS binding affinity to CD44 receptors overexpressed by cancer cells. Consequently, the ETP/ATRA-loaded micelles exhibited synergistic cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells as revealed by their significantly lower IC50, combination index (CI), and higherdose reduction index (DRI) in comparison to the free ETP and free ATRA or their combination. Micelles displayed superiority in reducing tumor volume, decreasing proliferation, and promoting necrosis in mice bearing Ehrlich Ascites Tumor (EAT) upon comparison to free ETP and free ATRA or their combination. Overall, the developed green zein-ChS micelles offer a promising platform for tumor-targeted delivery of hydrophobic therapeutic agents.

Chemotherapeutic potential of L-carnosine from stimuli-responsive magnetic nanoparticles against breast cancer model

Aim: L-carnosine-coated magnetic nanoparticles (CCMNPs) were developed to enhance chemotherapeutic activity of carnosine-dipeptide. Materials & methods: Surface grafting of MNPs with carnosine was contended by differential scanning calorimetry, infrared spectroscopy and x-ray diffraction. Physicochemical characterization and in vitro cytotoxicity on MCF-7 cell line was carried out. In vivo chemotherapeutic activity and toxicity was assessed by an Ehrlich Ascites tumor model. Results: CCMNPs possessed monodispersed size (120 nm), ζ (-27.3 mV), magnetization (51.52 emu/g) and entrapment efficiency (88.3%) with sustained release rate. CCMNPs showed 2.3-folds lower IC50 values compared with carnosine solution after 48 h. Targeted CCMNPs were specifically accumulated in tumor showing significant reduction in tumor size with no systemic toxicity. Significant reduction in VEGF and cyclin D1 levels were observed. Conclusion: The developed system endowed with responsiveness to an external stimulus can represent a promising magnetically targeted delivery system for carnosine site specific delivery.

Synthesis of lactoferrin mesoporous silica nanoparticles for pemetrexed/ellagic acid synergistic breast cancer therapy

Despite the clinical approval of few nanomedicines for cancer therapy, some drawbacks still impede their improved efficiency including low drug loading, off-target toxicity and development of multi-drug resistance. Herein, lactoferrin (Lf)-coupled mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) were developed for combined delivery of the cytotoxic drug pemetrexed (PMT) and the phytomedicine ellagic acid (EA) for synergistic breast cancer therapy. While the hydrophobic EA was physically encapsulated within the pores of MSNPs via the adsorptive properties of MSNPs and the electrostatic interactions between the negatively charged EA and positively charged amino modified MSNs, the highly water soluble PMT was chemically anchored to the Lf shell through chemical conjugation to the surface of lactoferrin coated MSNPs by carbodiimide reaction to avoid pre-mature drug release and systemic toxicity. The dual drug-loaded Lf-MSNPs (284 nm) demonstrated a sequential faster release of EA followed by a sustained release of PMT. The dual drug-loaded Lf-MSNPs exhibited highest cytotoxicity against MCF-7 (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7) breast cancer cells as revealed by the lowest combination index (CI = 0.885) compared to free drugs. The combination index value (< 1) revealed synergy between both loaded drugs. Furthermore, high cellular uptake of the nanocarriers into MCF-7 breast cancer cells was observed via Lf-receptor mediated endocytosis. Altogether, the dual drug-loaded Lf-targeted MSNPs showed to be a promising carrier for breast cancer therapy through triggering different signaling pathways, and hence overcoming the multi-drug resistance and minimizing the systemic toxicity.

Multicompartmental lipid–protein nanohybrids for combined tretinoin/herbal lung cancer therapy

Aim: Multicompartmental lipid–protein nanohybrids (MLPNs) were developed for combined delivery of the anticancer drugs tretinoin (TRE) and genistein (GEN) as synergistic therapy of lung cancer. Materials & methods: The GEN-loaded lipid core was first prepared and then coated with TRE-loaded zein shell via nanoprecipitation. Results: TRE/GEN-MLPNs demonstrated a size of 154.5 nm. In situ ion pair formation between anionic TRE and the cationic stearyl amine improved the drug encapsulation with enhanced stability of MLPNs. TRE/GEN-coloaded MLPNs were more cytotoxic against A549 cancer cells compared with combined free GEN/TRE. In vivo, lung cancer bearing mice treated with TRE/GEN-MLPNs displayed higher apoptotic caspase activation compared with mice-treated free combined GEN/TRE. Conclusion: TRE/GEN-MLPNs might serve as a promising parenteral nanovehicles for lung cancer therapy.

Dual-Targeted Lactoferrin Shell-Oily Core Nanocapsules for Synergistic Targeted/Herbal Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Herein, both strategies of synergistic drug combination together with dual active tumor targeting were combined for effective therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, based on the tumor sensitizing action, the herbal quercetin (QRC) was co-delivered with the targeted therapeutic drug sorafenib (SFB), preformulated as phospholipid complex, via protein shell-oily core nanocapsules (NCs). Inspired by the targeting action of lactoferrin (LF) via binding to LF receptors overexpressed by HCC cells, LF shell was electrostatically deposited onto the drug-loaded oily core to elaborate LF shell-oily core NCs. For dual tumor targeting, lactobionic acid (LA) or glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) was individually coupled to LF shell for binding to asialoglycoprotein and GA receptors on liver cancer cells, respectively. Compared to LF and GA/LF NCs, the dual-targeted LA/LF-NCs showed higher internalization into HepG2 cells with 2-fold reduction in half-maximal inhibitory concentration compared to free combination therapy after 48 h. Moreover, dual-targeted LF-NCs showed powerful in vivo antitumor efficacy. It was revealed as significant downregulation of the mRNA expression levels of nuclear factor-kappa B and tumor necrosis factor α as well as suppression of Ki-67 protein expression level in diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCC mice (P < 0.05). Furthermore, dual-targeted LF-NCs attenuated the liver toxicity induced by DEN in animal models. Overall, this study proposes dual-targeted LF-NCs for combined delivery of SFB and QRC as a potential therapeutic HCC strategy.

Multifunctional hyaluronate - nanoparticle hybrid systems for diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic applications

Diagnostic and therapeutic nanoparticles have been actively investigated for the last few decades as new platforms for biomedical applications. Despite their great versatility and potency, nanoparticles have generally required further modification with biocompatible materials such as biopolymers and synthetic polymers for in vivo administration to improve their biological functions, stability, and biocompatibility. Among a variety of natural and synthetic biomaterials, hyaluronate (HA) has been considered a promising biomolecule with which to construct nanohybrid systems, as it can enable long-term and efficient delivery of nanoparticles to target sites as well as physiological stabilization of nanoparticles by forming hydrophilic shells. In this review, we first describe various kinds of HA derivatives and their interactions with nanoparticles, and discuss how to design and develop optimal HA-nanoparticle hybrid systems for biomedical applications. Furthermore, we show several exemplary applications of HA-nanoparticle hybrid systems and provide our perspectives to their futuristic translational applications.

Combining hydrophilic chemotherapy and hydrophobic phytotherapy via tumor-targeted albumin-QDs nano-hybrids: covalent coupling and phospholipid complexation approaches

BACKGROUND

The rationale of this study is to combine the merits of both albumin nanoparticles and quantum dots (QDs) in improved drug tumor accumulation and strong fluorescence imaging capability into one carrier. However, premature drug release from protein nanoparticles and high toxicity of QDs due to heavy metal leakage are among challenging hurdles. Following this platform, we developed cancer nano-theranostics by coupling biocompatible albumin backbone to CdTe QDs and mannose moieties to enhance tumor targeting and reduce QDs toxicity. The chemotherapeutic water soluble drug pemetrexed (PMT) was conjugated via tumor-cleavable bond to the albumin backbone for tumor site-specific release. In combination, the herbal hydrophobic drug resveratrol (RSV) was preformulated as phospholipid complex which enabled its physical encapsulation into albumin nanoparticles.

RESULTS

Albumin-QDs theranostics showed enhanced cytotoxicity and internalization into breast cancer cells that could be traced by virtue of their high fluorescence quantum yield and excellent imaging capacity. In vivo, the nanocarriers demonstrated superior anti-tumor effects including reduced tumor volume, increased apoptosis, and inhibited angiogenesis in addition to non-immunogenic response. Moreover, in vivo bioimaging test demonstrated excellent tumor-specific accumulation of targeted nanocarriers via QDs-mediated fluorescence.

CONCLUSION

Mannose-grafted strategy and QD-fluorescence capability were beneficial to deliver albumin nanocarriers to tumor tissues and then to release the anticancer drugs for killing cancer cells as well as enabling tumor imaging facility. Overall, we believe albumin-QDs nanoplatform could be a potential nano-theranostic for bioimaging and targeted breast cancer therapy.

Liquid crystalline assembly for potential combinatorial chemo-herbal drug delivery to lung cancer cells

Background

Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the leading cause of total deaths worldwide. Its classified into two major types including non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) based on the origin of abnormal lung cells as well as the smoking status of the patient. NSCLC is the most common and aggressive type of lung cancer representing 80%–85% of all cases.

Purpose

The aim of the study was to present lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) as promising carriers for co-delivery of the chemotherapeutic agent, pemetrexed (PMX) and the herbal drug, resveratrol (RSV) for effective lung cancer management.

Methods

The proposed PMX-RSV-LCNPs were prepared by hydrotrope method. Hydrophobic ion pairing with cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) was implemented to increase the encapsulation efficiency of the hydrophilic PMX up to 95%±3.01%.

Results

The tailored PMX-RSV-LCNPs exhibited a particle size of 173±0.26 nm and biphasic release pattern with a relatively initial burst release within first 3–4 hour followed by sustained release up to 24 hours. Moreover, PMX-RSV-LCNPs manifested superior concentration and time dependent cytotoxicity profile against A549 lung cancer cells with IC₅₀ 4.0628 µg/mL. Besides, the enhanced cellular uptake profile based on bioadhesive properties of glyceryl monoolein (GMO) as well as energy independent (cholesterol dependent) pattern. In-vivo evaluations against urethane induced lung cancer bearing mice demonstrated the potentiality of PMX-RSV-LCNPs in tumor growth inhibition via inhibition of angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis. The results were supported by histopathological analysis and immunohistochemical Ki67 staining. Moreover, PMX-RSV-LCNPs displayed a promising safety profile via attenuating nephro- and hepatotoxicity.

Conclusion

PMX-RSV-LCNPs elaborated in the current study hold a great promise for lung cancer treatment.

Hyaluronic acid conjugated multi-walled carbon nanotubes for colon cancer targeting

Purpose of the present research was to evaluate in vitro and in vivo potential of gemcitabine (GEM) loaded hyaluronic acid (HA) conjugated PEGylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (GEM/HA-PEG-MWCNTs) for effective colon cancer targeting. HA was conjugated onto the surface of aminated or PEGylated MWCNTs which were evaluated for size, surface morphology, entrapment efficiency (~90%), in vitro drug release, in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo performance in Sprague Dawley rats. In vitro release showed that the release rate of GEM in acidic conditions (pH 5.3) was faster than physiological conditions (PBS, pH 7.4) followed by a sustained release pattern. The developed GEM/HA-PEG-MWCNTs indicated significantly less hemolytic toxicity (7.73 ± 0.4%) paralleled to free GEM (18.71 ± 0.44%) and showed higher cytotoxicity against HT-29 colon cancer cell line. The antitumor study assured that GEM/HA-PEG-MWCNTs significantly reduced tumor volume as compared to free GEM and increased survival rate without noticeable loss in body weight. In vivo studies showed an improvement in pharmacokinetics in terms of remarkable escalation in mean residence time, half-life, AUC, AUMC, median survival time in tumor bearing rats treated with GEM/HA-MWCNTs and GEM/HA-PEG-MWCNTs as compared to free GEM (p ˂ 0.001). These outcomes proved engineered MWCNTs as a safe and effective nanomedicine in colon cancer targeting.

Protein-polysaccharide nanohybrids: Hybridization techniques and drug delivery applications

Complex nanosystems fabricated by hybridization of different types of materials such as lipids, proteins, or polysaccharides are usually superior to simple ones in terms of features and applications. Proteins and polysaccharides hold great potential for development of nanocarriers for drug delivery purposes based on their unique biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of functionalization, improved biodistribution and minimal toxicity profiles. Protein-polysaccharide nanohybrids have gained a lot of attention in the past few years particularly for drug delivery applications. In this review, different hybridization techniques utilized in the fabrication of such nanohybrids including electrostatic complexation, Maillard conjugation, chemical coupling and electrospinning were thoroughly reviewed. Moreover, various formulation factors affecting the characteristics of the formed nanohybrids were discussed. We also reviewed in depth the outcomes of such hybridization ranging from stability enhancement, to toxicity reduction, improved biocompatibility, and drug release modulation. We also gave an insight on their limitations and what hinders their clinical translation and market introduction.

Decorating protein nanospheres with lactoferrin enhances oral COX-2 inhibitor/herbal therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

Aim: Lactoferrin (LF)-targeted gliadin nanoparticles (GL-NPs) were developed for targeted oral therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Materials & methods: Celecoxib and diosmin were incorporated in the hydrophobic matrix of GL-NPs whose surface was decorated with LF by electrostatic interaction for binding to asialoglycoprotein receptors overexpressed by liver cancer cells. Results: Targeted GL-NPs showed enhanced cytotoxic activity and increased cellular uptake in liver tumor cells compared with nontargeted NPs. Moreover, they demonstrated superior in vivo antitumor effects including reduction in the expression levels of tumor biomarkers and induction of caspase-mediated apoptosis. Ex vivo imaging of isolated organs exhibited extensive accumulation of NPs in livers more than other organs. Conclusion: LF-targeted GL-NPs could be considered as an efficient nanoplatform for targeted oral drug delivery for liver cancer therapy.

Lactoferrin-tagged quantum dots-based theranostic nanocapsules for combined COX-2 inhibitor/herbal therapy of breast cancer

Aim: Herein, tumor-targeted quantum dots (QDs)-based theranostic nanocapsules (NCs) coloaded with celecoxib and honokiol were developed. Materials & methodology: The anionic CD44-targeting chondroitin sulfate and cationic low density lipoprotein (LDL)-targeting lactoferrin (LF) were sequentially assembled onto the surface of the positively charged oily core. As an imaging probe, highly fluorescent mercaptopropionic acid-capped cadmium telluride QDs were coupled to LF. Results: In vitro, fluorescence of QDs was quenched (OFF state) due to combined electron/energy transfer-mediated processes involving LF. After intracellular uptake of NCs, fluorescence was restored (ON state), thus enabled tracing their internalization. The NCs demonstrated enhanced cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells as well as superior in vivo antitumor efficacy. Conclusion: We propose these multifunctional nanotheranostics for imaging and targeted therapy of breast cancer.

Dual-targeted nano-in-nano albumin carriers enhance the efficacy of combined chemo/herbal therapy of lung cancer

Aim: A Nano-in-Nano approach was exploited to facilitate incorporation of the chemotherapeutic drug etoposide (ETP) as nanosuspension, synergistically with berberine (BER) into hydrophilic albumin nanoparticles (HSA NPs).Methods: For maximal tumor targeting, HSA was modified with mannose and phenyl-boronic acid. Furthermore, different crosslinkers were investigated for sustained release of water soluble BER from HSA NPs. Results: The elaborated dual-targeted HSA NPs (216.2 nm) were spherical with high BER and ETP entrapment efficiency (69.5 and 87.6%, respectively) and loading (10.52 and 14.04%, respectively). The NPs exhibited sequential release pattern for both ETP and BER (51.55 and 34.33% over 72 h, respectively). Phenyl-boronic acid/mannose-HSA NPs demonstrated powerful cytotoxicity against A549 lung cancer cells (IC50: 12.4 μg/ml) correlated to enhanced cellular internalization. Dual-targeted NPs displayed 9.77-fold higher caspase-3 level and 3.5-fold lower VEGF level than positive control mice. Conclusion: Dual-targeted Nano-in-Nano albumin carriers could be beneficial for parenteral ETP/BER delivery to lung cancer.

Lactobionic/Folate Dual-Targeted Amphiphilic Maltodextrin-Based Micelles for Targeted Codelivery of Sulfasalazine and Resveratrol to Hepatocellular Carcinoma

In this study, promising approaches of dual-targeted micelles and drug-polymer conjugation were combined to enable injection of poorly soluble anticancer drugs together with site-specific drug release. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) as a hepatoprotective agent was grafted to maltodextrin (MD) via carbodiimide coupling to develop amphiphilic maltodextrin-ursodeoxycholic acid (MDCA)-based micelles. Sulfasalazine (SSZ), as a novel anticancer agent, was conjugated via a tumor-cleavable ester bond to MD backbone to obtain tumor-specific release, whereas resveratrol (RSV) was physically entrapped within the hydrophobic micellar core. For maximal tumor-targeting, both folic acid (FA) and lactobionic acid (LA) were coupled to the surface of micelles to obtain dual-targeted micelles. The decrease of critical micelle concentration (CMC) from 0.012 to 0.006 mg/mL declares the significance of a dual hydrophobicized core of micelles by both UDCA and SSZ. The dual-targeted micelles showed a great hemocompatibility, as well as enhanced cytotoxicity and internalization into HepG-2 liver cancer cells via binding to overexpressed folate and asialoglycoprotein receptors. In vivo, the micelles demonstrated superior antitumor effects revealed as reduction in the liver/body weight ratio, inhibition of angiogenesis, and enhanced apoptosis. Overall, combined strategies of dual active targeted micelles with bioresponsive drug conjugation could be utilized as a promising approach for tumor-targeted drug delivery.

Dual-targeted casein micelles as green nanomedicine for synergistic phytotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

In recent years, green nanomedicines have made transformative difference in cancer therapy researches. Herein, we propose dual-functionalized spray-dried casein micelles (CAS-MCs) for combined delivery of two phytochemicals; berberine (BRB) and diosmin (DSN) as targeted therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The nanomicelles enabled parenteral delivery of the poorly soluble DSN via its encapsulation within their hydrophobic core. Moreover, sustained release of the water soluble BRB was attained by hydrophobic ion pairing with sodium deoxycholate followed by genipin crosslinking of CAS-MCs. Dual-active targeting of MCs, via conjugating both lactobionic acid (LA) and folic acid (FA), resulted in superior cytotoxicity and higher cellular uptake against HepG2 cells compared to single-targeted and non-targeted CAS-MCs. The dual-targeted DSN/BRB-loaded CAS-MCs demonstrated superior in vivo anti-tumor efficacy in HCC bearing mice as revealed by down regulation of cell necrosis markers (NF-κB and TNF-α), inflammatory marker COX2, inhibition of angiogenesis and induction of apoptosis. Histopathological analysis and immunohistochemical Ki67 staining confirmed the superiority of the dual-targeted micelles. Ex-vivo imaging showed preferential liver-specific accumulation of dual-targeted CAS-MCs. Overall, this approach combined the benefits of traditional herbal medicine with nanotechnology via LA/FA-CAS-MCs loaded with BRB and DSN as a promising nanoplatform for targeted HCC therapy.

Layer-by-layer gelatin/chondroitin quantum dots-based nanotheranostics: combined rapamycin/celecoxib delivery and cancer imaging

Aim: Nanotheranostics consisting of highly-fluorescent quantum dots coupled with gelatin/chondroitin layer-by-layer assembled nanocapsules were developed. Materials & methods: The hydrophobic drugs celecoxib (CXB) and rapamycin (RAP) were co-loaded into the oily core of nanocapsules (NCs) to enable synergistic growth inhibition of breast cancer cells. To overcome the nonspecific binding of actively targeted CS-NCs with normal cells, a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2)-degradable cationic gelatin layer was electrostatically deposited onto the surface of the negatively-charged CS-NCs. Results: The prepared nanocarriers displayed strong fluorescence which enabled tracing their internalization into cancer cells. An enhanced cytotoxicity of the NCs against breast cancer cells was demonstrated. In vivo, the nanoplatforms displayed superior antitumor efficacy as well as nonimmunogenic response. Conclusion: Therefore, these multifunctional nanoplatforms could be used as potential cancer theranostics.

Flutamide-Loaded Zein Nanocapsule Hydrogel, a Promising Dermal Delivery System for Pilosebaceous Unit Disorders

Zein is a naturally occurring corn protein having similarity to skin keratin. Owing to its hydrophobicity and biodegradability, zein nanocarriers are promising drug delivery vehicles for hydrophobic dermatological drugs. In this study, zein-based nanocapsules (ZNCs) were exploited for the first time as dermal delivery carriers for flutamide (FLT), an antiandrogen used for the management of pilosebasceous unit disorders. FLT-loaded ZNC of appropriate particle size and negative surface charge were prepared by nanoprecipitation method. The dermal permeation and skin retention of FLT from ZNCs were studied in comparison to corresponding nanoemulsion (NE) and hydroalcoholic drug solution (HA). ZNCs showed a significantly lower permeation flux compared to NE and HA while increasing the skin retention of FLT. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) demonstrated the follicular localization of the fluorescently labeled NCs. The incorporation of NCs in chitosan gel or Carbomer® 934 gel was studied. Carbomer® gel increased the skin retention of FLT compared to chitosan gel. Accordingly, Carbomer® hydrogel embedding FLT-loaded ZNCs is a promising inexpensive, biocompatible dermal delivery nanocarrier for localized therapy of PSU disorders suitable for application on oily skin.

Folate conjugated vs PEGylated phytosomal casein nanocarriers for codelivery of fungal- and herbal-derived anticancer drugs

Aim: Monascin and ankaflavin, the major fractions of the fungal-derived monascus yellow pigments, were incorporated with the herbal drug, resveratrol (RSV) within the core of folate-conjugated casein micelles (FA–CAS MCs, F1) for active targeting. PEGylated RSV-phospholipid complex bilayer enveloping casein-loaded micelles (PEGPC–CAS MCs) were also developed as passive-targeted nanosystem. Results: FA– and PEGPC–CAS MCs demonstrated a proper size with monomodal distribution, sustained drug release profiles and good hemocompatibility. The coloaded MCs showed superior cytotoxicity to MCF-7 breast cancer cells compared with free drugs. Both nanosystems exerted excellent in vivo antitumor efficacy in breast cancer bearing mice with PEGylated MCs showing comparable tumor regression to folate-conjugated MCs. Conclusion: Evergreen nanoplatforms coloaded with monascus yellow pigments and RSV were effective for breast cancer treatment.

Hyaluronate/lactoferrin layer-by-layer-coated lipid nanocarriers for targeted co-delivery of rapamycin and berberine to lung carcinoma

The self-tumor targeting polymers, lactoferrin (LF) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were utilized to develop layer-by-layer (LbL) lipid nanoparticles (NPs) for dual delivery of berberine (BER) and rapamycin (RAP) to lung cancer. To control its release from the NPs, BER was hydrophobically ion paired with SLS prior to incorporation into NPs. Spherical HA/LF-LbL-RAP-BER/SLS-NPs 250.5 nm in diameter, with a surface charge of -18.5 mV were successfully elaborated. The NPs exhibited sequential release pattern with faster release of BER followed by controlled release of RAP which enables sensitization of lung tumor cells to the anti-cancer action of RAP. LbL coating of the NPs was found to enhance the drug cytotoxicity against A549 lung cancer cells as augmented by remarkable increase in their cellular internalization through CD44 receptors overexpressed by tumor cells. In vivo studies in lung cancer bearing mice have revealed the superior therapeutic activity of LbL-RAP-BER/SLS-NPs over the free drugs as demonstrated by 88.09% reduction in the average number of microscopic lung foci and 3.1-fold reduction of the angiogenic factor VEGF level compared to positive control. Overall, the developed HA/LF-LbL-coated lipid NPs could be potential carriers for targeted co-delivery of BER and RAP to lung cancer cells.

Phytosomal bilayer-enveloped casein micelles for codelivery of monascus yellow pigments and resveratrol to breast cancer

Aim: Multireservoir nanocarriers were fabricated for delivering antineoplastic drug cocktail from herbal and fungal origin. Monascus yellow pigments (MYPs), monascin and ankaflavin, were isolated from red-mold rice, and incorporated within casein micelles (CAS MCs) along with the herbal drug, resveratrol (RSV). Both drugs (MYPs and RSV) were simultaneously incorporated into the hydrophobic core of CAS MCs. Alternatively, MYPs-loaded CAS MCs were enveloped within RSV-phytosomal bilayer elaborating multireservoir nanocarriers. Results: Cytotoxicity studies confirmed the superiority of multireservoir nanocarriers against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The in vivo antitumor efficacy was revealed by reduction of the tumor volume and growth biomarkers. Conclusion: Multireservoir CAS nanocarriers for codelivery of both MYPs and RSV may be promising alternative to traditional breast cancer therapy.

Shell-crosslinked zein nanocapsules for oral codelivery of exemestane and resveratrol in breast cancer therapy

Aim: Oral administration of exemestane (EXM) and resveratrol (RES) for breast cancer therapy has been limited by their poor solubility and low permeability. Methods: In this study, these issues were tackled using zein nanocapsules (ZNCs) for oral EXM/RES codelivery combining drug solubilization within oily core and resistance to digestion via hydrophobic protein shell. Furthermore, higher oral stability and sustained release could be enabled by glutaraldehyde crosslinking of zein shell. Results & conclusion: EXM/RES-ZNCs showed enhanced cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and 4T1 breast cancer cells compared with free drug combination with higher selectivity to cancer cells rather than normal fibroblasts. In vivo, crosslinked EXM/RES-ZNCs markedly reduced the percentage increase of Ehrlich ascites mammary tumor volume in mice by 2.4-fold compared with free drug combination.