Fabrication and characterization of gefitinib-releasing polyurethane foam as a coating for drug-eluting stent in the treatment of bronchotracheal cancer

Enhancement of dissolution and oral bioavailability by adjusting microenvironment pH in crocetin ternary solid dispersions: Optimization, characterization, in vitro evaluation, and pharmacokinetics

The most promising active ingredient of Crocus sativus L., crocetin (CCT), has been demonstrated to possess many biological activities. However, only a few studies have been conducted on CCT formulation, especially in oral formulation, mainly due to its insolubility in water, which limits its application for oral administration. This article reports an equilibrium saturation solubility and single-pass intestinal perfusion studies conducted to classify the biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) of CCT. To enhance in vitro dissolution and in vivo oral bioavailability, ternary solid dispersions of CCT (CCT-SDs) with soluplus (SOL) as hydrophilic carrier and meglumine (MEG) as alkalizer were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) with central composite design (CCD) experiments. Four different preparation methods were evaluated using the optimal formulation, including solvent evaporation, ball milling, spray drying, and freeze-drying. Prepared formulations were characterized by TG-DSC, FTIR, X-RPD, and SEM; the pharmacokinetic studies were performed in rats after oral administration. The cumulative dissolution rate of CCT-SDs containing SOL and MEG prepared by the ball milling method was 97.1% at 15 min and remained at 95.6% at 480 min, which was significantly higher than that of untreated CCT. The lower crystallinity, smaller particle size, and higher microenvironment pH (pHM) were observed in CCT-SDs prepared by the ball milling method. In vivo absorption of CCT-SDs (Cmax = 52.789 ± 12.441 μg/mL and AUC0-12 = 191.748 ± 35.043 μg/mL·h) was greater than untreated CCT (Cmax = 5.918 ± 1.388 μg/mL and AUC0-12 = 44.309 ± 7.264 μg/mL·h). In conclusion, the current study provides ternary solid dispersion formulation of CCT to increase the in vitro dissolution and in vivo bioavailability, which will benefit the commercial production and future clinical applications of CCT.

Pentapeptide cRGDfK-Surface Engineered Nanostructured Lipid Carriers as an Efficient Tool for Targeted Delivery of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor for Battling Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Antitumor research aims to efficiently target hepatocarcinoma cells (HCC) for drug delivery. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are promising for active tumour targeting. Cell-penetrating peptides are feasible ligands for targeted cancer treatment.

Methods

In this study, we optimized gefitinib-loaded NLCs (GF-NLC) for HCC treatment. The NLCs contained cholesterol, oleic acid, Pluronic F-68, and Phospholipon 90G. The NLC surface was functionalized to enhance targeting with the cRGDfK-pentapeptide, which binds to the αvβ3 integrin receptor overexpressed on hepatocarcinoma cells.

Results

GF-NLC formulation was thoroughly characterized for various parameters using differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction analysis. In-vitro and in-vivo studies on the HepG2 cell line showed cRGDfK@GF-NLC's superiority over GF-NLC and free gefitinib. cRGDfK@GF-NLC exhibited significantly higher cytotoxicity, growth inhibition, and cellular internalization. Biodistribution studies demonstrated enhanced tumour site accumulation without organ toxicity. The findings highlight cRGDfK@GF-NLC as a highly efficient carrier for targeted drug delivery, surpassing non-functionalized NLCs. These functionalized NLCs offer promising prospects for improving hepatocarcinoma therapy outcomes by specifically targeting HCC cells.

Conclusion

Based on these findings, cRGDfK@GF-NLC holds immense potential as a highly efficient carrier for targeted drug delivery of anticancer agents, surpassing the capabilities of non-functionalized NLCs. This research opens up new avenues for effective treatment strategies in hepatocarcinoma.

Chitosan nanoparticles as a smart nanocarrier for gefitinib for tackling lung cancer: Design of experiment and in vitro cytotoxicity study

Due to its poor solubility and systemic side effects, gefitinib (Gef) has limited application in treatment of lung cancer. In this study, we used design of experiment (DOE) tools to gain the necessary knowledge for the synthesis of high-quality gefitinib loaded chitosan nanoparticles (Gef-CSNPs) capable of delivering and concentrating Gef at A549 cells, thereby increasing therapeutic effectiveness while decreasing adverse effects. The optimized Gef-CSNPs were characterized by SEM, TEM, DSC, XRD, and FTIR analyses. The optimized Gef-CSNPs had a particle size of 158±3.6 nm, an entrapment efficiency of 93±1.2 %, and a release of 97±0.6 % after 8 h. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the optimized Gef-CSNPs was found to be significantly higher than pure Gef (IC50 = 10.08 ± 0.76 μg/mL and IC50 = 21.65 ± 0.32 μg/mL), respectively. In the A549 human cell line, the optimized Gef-CSNPs formula outperformed pure Gef in terms of cellular uptake (3.286 ± 0.12 μg/mL and 1.777 ± 0.1 μg/mL) and apoptotic population (64.82 ± 1.25 % and 29.38 ± 1.11 %), respectively. These findings explain why researchers are so interested in using natural biopolymers to combat lung cancer, and they paint an optimistic picture of their potential as a promising tool in the fight against lung cancer.

c(RGDfK) anchored surface manipulated liposome for tumor-targeted Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor (TKI) delivery to potentiate liver anticancer activity

Current anticancer drug research includes tumor-targeted administration as a critical component because it is the best strategy to boost efficacy and decrease toxicity. Low drug concentration in cancer cells, nonspecific distribution, rapid clearance, multiple drug resistance, severe side effects, and other factors contribute to the disappointing results of traditional chemotherapy. As an innovative technique of treatments for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in recent years, nanocarrier-mediated targeted drug delivery systems can overcome the aforesaid limitations via enhanced permeability and retention effect (EPR) and active targeting. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor Gefitinib (Gefi) has dramatic effects on hepatocellular carcinoma. Herein, we developed and assessed an α_vβ₃ integrin receptor targeted c(RGDfk) surface modified liposomes for better targeting selectivity and therapeutic efficacy of Gefi on HCC cells. The conventional and modified Gefi loaded liposomes, i.e., denoted as Gefi-L and Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L, respectively, were prepared through the ethanol injection method and optimized via Box Behnken design (BBD). The FTIR and ¹H-NMR spectroscopy verified that the c(RGDfK) pentapeptides had formed an amide bond with the liposome surface. In addition, the particle size, Polydispersity index, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and in-vitro Gefi release of the Gefi-L and Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L were measured and analyzed. As indicated by the MTT assay on HepG2 cells, Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L displayed considerably higher cytotoxicity than Gefi-L or Gefi alone. Throughout the incubation period, HepG2 cells took up significantly more Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L than Gefi-L. According to the in vivo biodistribution analysis, Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L accumulated more strongly at the tumor site than Gefi-L and free Gefi. Furthermore, HCC-bearing rats treated with Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L showed a substantial drop in liver marker enzymes (alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate transaminase, and total bilirubin levels) compared to the disease control group. Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L suppresses tumour growth more effectively than Gefi-L and free Gefi, according to an in vivo analysis of their anticancer activities. Thus, c(RGDfk)-surface modified liposomes, i.e., Gefi-c(RGDfK)-L may serve as an efficient carrier for the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs.

Recent Advances in Boosting EGFR Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors-Based Cancer Therapy

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) plays a key role in signal transduction pathways associated with cell proliferation, growth, and survival. Its overexpression and aberrant activation in malignancy correlate with poor prognosis and short survival. Targeting inhibition of EGFR by small-molecular tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) is emerging as an important treatment model besides of chemotherapy, greatly reshaping the landscape of cancer therapy. However, they are still challenged by the off-targeted toxicity, relatively limited cancer types, and drug resistance after long-term therapy. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of oral, pulmonary, and injectable drug delivery systems for enhanced and targeting TKI delivery to tumors and reduced side effects. Importantly, EGFR-TKI-based combination therapies not only greatly broaden the applicable cancer types of EGFR-TKI but also significantly improve the anticancer effect. The mechanisms of TKI resistance are summarized, and current strategies to overcome TKI resistance as well as the application of TKI in reversing chemotherapy resistance are discussed. Finally, we provide a perspective on the future research of EGFR-TKI-based cancer therapy.

Natural rubber/wood composite foam: Thermal insulation and acoustic isolation materials for construction

With the advances in the field of civil construction and the world population growth, the development of policies is necessary for the management and reuse of generated residue. Thus, the present work proposes the use of expanded natural rubber as a polymeric matrix incorporated with eucalyptus filler as a reinforcing filler for the production of composites. Thermal insulation capacity was determined by the transient plane source and acoustic method by impedance tube. NR/W40 foam showed enhanced the acoustic insulation capacity. The maximum absorption of NR/W40 was 0.83, at 3257 Hz, which is three times higher than natural rubber foam. Highly inhomogeneous cell structures were observed with large, interconnected pores, improving the acoustic performance. Sound absorption coefficient for natural rubber foam with 40% wood (0.83 ± 0.046) was similar to PU foam (0.97 ± 0.009) with 20 mm in thickness, a density of 47 kg/m3 and 98% open cell content it is a well-known acoustic absorbent in the building sector. The NR/W40 sample recorded the best acoustic performance among the NR foams analyzed in this work, maintaining good sound absorption above 1500 Hz, demonstrating a possibility of wood reuse as a filler in based-rubber foam for acustic insulation.

Gefitinib-loaded starch nanoparticles for battling lung cancer: Optimization by full factorial design and in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation

Lung cancer is the number one killer among all cancer types. For decades, clinicians have been using conventional chemotherapeutics, but they can't rely on them alone anymore, because they poison bad cells and good cells as well. Researchers exploited nanotechnology as a potential tool to develop a platform for drug delivery to improve therapeutic efficiency. A quality by design synthesis of gefitinib-loaded starch nanoparticles (Gef-StNPs) has emerged as an essential tool to study and optimize the factors included in their synthesis. Therefore, we applied design of experiment (DOE) tools to attain the essential knowledge for the synthesis of high-quality Gef-StNPs that can deliver and concentrate the gefitinib (Gef) at A549 cells, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy and minimizing adverse effects. The in vitro cytotoxicity after exposing the A549 human lung cancer cells to the optimized Gef-StNPs was found to be much higher than that of the pure Gef (IC₅₀ = 6.037 ± 0.24 and 21.65 ± 0.32 μg/mL, respectively). The optimized Gef-StNPs formula showed superiority over the pure Gef regarding the cellular uptake in A549 human cell line (3.976 ± 0.14 and 1.777 ± 0.1 μg/mL) and apoptotic population (77.14 ± 1.43 and 29.38 ± 1.11 %), respectively. The results elucidate why researchers have a voracious appetite for using natural biopolymers to combat lung cancer and paint an optimistic picture of their potential to be a promising tool in battling lung cancer.

Biomedical Polyurethanes for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery Systems: A Brief, Comprehensive Review

With the intensive development of polymeric biomaterials in recent years, research using drug delivery systems (DDSs) has become an essential strategy for cancer therapy. Various DDSs are expected to have more advantages in anti-neoplastic effects, including easy preparation, high pharmacology efficiency, low toxicity, tumor-targeting ability, and high drug-controlled release. Polyurethanes (PUs) are a very important kind of polymers widely used in medicine, pharmacy, and biomaterial engineering. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable PUs are a significant group of these biomaterials. PUs can be synthesized by adequately selecting building blocks (a polyol, a di- or multi-isocyanate, and a chain extender) with suitable physicochemical and biological properties for applications in anti-cancer DDSs technology. Currently, there are few comprehensive reports on a summary of polyurethane DDSs (PU-DDSs) applied for tumor therapy. This study reviewed state-of-the-art PUs designed for anti-cancer PU-DDSs. We studied successful applications and prospects for further development of effective methods for obtaining PUs as biomaterials for oncology.

Evaluation of thermosensitive chitosan hydrogel containing gefitinib loaded cellulose acetate butyrate nanoparticles in a subcutaneous breast cancer model

In the present study, gefitinib loaded cellulose acetate butyrate nanoparticles (Gnb-NPs) were prepared and then incorporated into thermo-sensitive chitosan/β-glycerophosphate hydrogels for intratumoral administration in mice bearing breast cancer. Accordingly, Gnb-NPs were prepared using the solvent evaporation process and optimized by applying a two-level fractional factorial design. Properties of NPs, including particle size, zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PdI), encapsulation efficiency (EE) % and drug loading (DL) %, were investigated; the optimized Gnb-NPs were then loaded in chitosan hydrogels (Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel). The formulated Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel was assessed in terms of gelling time, release behavior, injectability, swelling and degradation behavior. The anti-cancer efficacy of Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel was evaluated in vitro against the 4 T1 breast cancer cell line and in vivo in breast tumor bearing mice. The optimized formulation showed spherical particles with the size of 156.50 ± 2.40 nm, PdI of 0.20 ± 0.002, ZP of -4.90 ± 0.04 mV, EE of 99.77 ± 0.09 % and DL of 20.59 ± 0.05 %. Incorporating Gnb-NPs into the hydrogel led to the decrease of the drug release rate. Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel displayed a greater cytotoxic effect in comparison to the free Gnb and Gnb-Hydrogel in 4 T1 cancer cells. Furthermore,intratumorallyinjectedGnb-NPs-Hydrogel showed the strongest antitumor efficacy in vivo. The superior performance of Gnb-NPs-Hydrogel, thus, demonstrated its potential for the treatment of breast cancer.

INVESTIGATION OF THE ABILITY TO BIODEGRADABILITY OF POLYURETHANE FOAM COMPOSITE MATERIALS WITH ALBUCID AND THE DYNAMICS OF ALBUCID RELEASE IN VITRO

Studies of biodegradability of polyurethane foam (PUF) composite materials with albucid under the influence of biological medium 199 (BM 199) and saline solution for 2 weeks, 1, 3 and 6 months were conducted. IR spectroscopy, physical-mechanical tests, DSC and TGA before and after incubation in model mediums were investigated. It was found that the influence of BM 199 and saline solution on the structure and properties of composite materials with albucid is similar. According to the results of physical-mechanical studies under the influence of model mediums there are processes of biodegradation which are confirmed by a decrease in adhesive strength after incubation in BM 199 and saline solution. According to IR spectroscopy, biodegradation is accompanied by redistribution of hydrogen bonds of NH groups of the polymer matrix. The results of studies by the DSC method indicate a decrease of Tg and increase of ΔСР of PUF composites with albucid compared to the control, which is associated with increasing of segmental mobility of macromolecules under the influence of model mediums and due to the albucid release from polymer matrix. It was found that PUF and PUF composites with albucid in vitro remain heat-resistant materials, because after incubation in BM 199 and a saline solution there is an increase in T0 and Tmax by the TGA method. Studies of the dynamics of albucid release from the PUF matrix were carried out. It was found that the composite materials are capable to the prolonged release of the drug. The amount of released albucid is 36.0 % on the 60th day of the experiment, which does not exceed the therapeutic dose and has no toxic effects. Therefore, polyurethane foam composite materials with albucid can be proposed as promising materials for use as implants with prolonged action of albucid in ophthalmological surgery.

INVESTIGATION OF BIODEGRADATION AND PROPERTIES OF POLYURETHANE FOAM COMPOSITE MATERIALS WITH LYSOZYME IN VITRO

The study of biodegradation ability of polyurethane foams composite materials with lysozyme under the influence of saline solution for 2 weeks, 1, 3 and 6 months by IR spectroscopy, DSC, TGA was conducted. According to the results of IR spectroscopy under the influence of model medium there are processes of biodegradation, which are confirmed by a decrease in the intensity of the absorption band νС=О. Along with biodegradation there is a redistribution of hydrogen bonds of NH and CO groups of polymer matrix. According to DSC after incubation in saline solution there is an increase in Tg and ΔCp at the glass-transition (for polyurethane foams and composites with lysozyme in the amount of 5 wt. %), an increase in Tg and decrease in ΔCp (for composites with lysozyme in the amount of 1 and 3 wt. %), which indicates the redistribution of hydrogen bonds under the influence of saline solution and due to lysozyme release. It was found that after incubation in saline solution there is an increase in T0 and Tmax for both polyurethane foams and composite materials with lysozyme by the method of TGA. Thus, composites with lysozyme in vitro are heat-resistant materials. According to the study results of the dynamics of lysozyme release composites are capable to the prolonged release of enzyme for 5 days, the amount of which varies depending on the lysozyme content (43.85-61.97 % of the total amount of the introduced drug) and is sufficient for the manifestation of antimicrobial activity. The tissue culture method has established the biocompatibility of investigated materials. For polyurethane foam composite materials with lysozyme more active growth of fibroblastic elements than in the control and polyurethane foam and slowing down the process of cell degeneration was observed. The obtained results indicate that polyurethane foam composite materials with lysozyme are promising materials that due to the presence of the enzyme will have antimicrobial action and can be used in medical practice as polymer composites for the treatment of wounds and burns.

Solid Dispersions of Gefitinib Prepared by Spray Drying with Improved Mucoadhesive and Drug Dissolution Properties

Gefitinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that is intended for oral administration yet suffers poor bioavailability along with undesirable side effects. To enhance its solubility and allow colon targeting, gefitinib (ZD) and blends of different ratios of polymers (ternary dispersion) were prepared in organic solution, and solid dispersions were generated employing the spray drying (SD) technique. The methylmethacrylate polymer Eudragit S 100 was incorporated for colon targeting; polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) were utilised to improve the solubility of ZD. SEM, DSC, XRPD, FT-IR, dissolution and cytotoxicity studies were undertaken to characterise and evaluate the developed formulations. SEM images revealed that the rod-shaped crystals of ZD were transformed into collapsed spheres with smaller particle size in the spray-dried particles. DSC, FTIR and XRPD studies showed that ZD loaded in the spray-dried dispersions was amorphous. ZD dissolution and release studies revealed that while a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the ZD dissolution and release was observed from HPMC-based solid dispersion at pH 7.2 (up to 95% in 15 h), practically no drug was released at pH 1.2 and pH 6.5. Furthermore, the HPMC-based solid dispersions displayed enhanced mucoadhesive properties compared with PVP-based ones. Interestingly, cell viability studies using the neutral red assay showed that PVP and HPMC-based solid dispersions had no additional inhibitory effect on Caco-2 cell line compared to the pure drug.

Production of Rigid Polyurethane Foams Using Polyol from Liquefied Oil Palm Biomass: Variation of Isocyanate Indexes

Development of polyurethane foam (PUF) containing bio-based components is a complex process that requires extensive studies. This work reports on the production of rigid PUFs from polyol obtained via liquefaction of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) biomass with different isocyanate (NCO) indexes. The effect of the NCO index on the physical, chemical and compressive properties of the liquefied EFB-based PUF (EFBPUF) was evaluated. The EFBPUFs showed a unique set of properties at each NCO index. Foaming properties had affected the apparent density and cellular morphology of the EFBPUFs. Increasing NCO index had increased the crosslink density and dimensional stability of the EFBPUFs via formation of isocyanurates, which had also increased their thermal stability. Combination of both foaming properties and crosslink density of the EFBPUFs had influenced their respective compressive properties. The EFBPUF produced at the NCO index of 120 showed the optimum compressive strength and released the least toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) gas under thermal degradation. The normalized compressive strength of the EFBPUF at the NCO index of 120 is also comparable with the strength of the PUF produced using petrochemical polyol.

Preparation, characterization and primary evaluation of trilayered biliary stent films for anti-cholangiocarcinoma and anti-biofilm formation

Excessive growth of tumor within biliary wall and formation of biofilm on inner surface of stent can cause restenosis or even obstruction after stent implantation. Therefore, it is important and valuable to develop a new biliary stent for anti-cholangiocarcinoma and anti-biofilm formation. Herein, we designed, prepared and primarily evaluated a new trilayered film for biliary stents consisting of one poly (lactic acid) (PLA) layer loaded with anti-tumor paclitaxel (PTX layer), one middle PLA isolation layer (isolation layer) and one PLA layer loaded with antimicrobial ofloxacin (OFLX layer). It is postulated that the PTX layer releases drug towards biliary wall with tumor, the OFLX layer releases drug towards lumen of bile duct and the isolation layer is used to separate from the PTX layer and the OFLX layer and facilitate drug release in unidirectional way. The prepared trilayered films were characterized in terms of morphology, microstructure, crystallinity and biodegradability. It was found that the films could effectively tune drug release by addition of different amounts of drug or PEG, release PTX and OFLX in opposite directions, effectively inhibit the proliferation of human cholangiocarcinoma RBE cells, the adherence of E. coli and S. aureus and the formation of biofilm in vitro. It is potential that the trilayered films can be used to fabricate a new biliary stent with a dual function of anti-cholangiocarcinoma and anti-biofilm formation.

Comparative study of intratracheal and oral gefitinib for the treatment of primary lung cancer

Oral gefitinib tablets are widely applied for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) though its broad distribution in the body may result in weak therapeutic efficiency and undesired side effects. Here, liposomal gefitinib dry powder inhalers (LGDs) were prepared using the injection-lyophilization method. LGDs were rough porous particles under a scanning electron microscope, which can be rapidly rehydrated to liposomes. LGDs and gefitinib powders were separately intratracheally (i.t.) administered into the lungs of primary lung cancer rats, while powdered gefitinib tablets were orally administered. Gefitinib was rapidly absorbed from the lung after i.t. administration of LGDs. The maximal gefitinib concentration in the circulation and the area under curve (AUC) of i.t. LGDs were higher than those of i.t. gefitinib powders and oral gefitinib. More importantly, much higher concentration and longer retention of gefitinib in the lung were shown after i.t. administration of LGDs and gefitinib powders but remarkably less drug distribution in the liver compared to oral gefitinib. LGDs showed higher therapeutic effect on rat primary lung cancer than i.t. gefitinib powders and oral gefitinib with reduction of inflammation, weak lung injury, and high apoptosis. Combination of inhalation and liposomes of anticancer drugs is a promising strategy for treatment of primary lung cancer.