Lipid nanocapsules for intracellular delivery of microRNA: a first step towards intervertebral disc degeneration therapy

Nanotechnology-Enhanced Pharmacotherapy for Intervertebral Disc Degeneration Treatment

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a primary contributor to chronic back pain and disability globally, with current therapeutic approaches often proving inadequate due to the complex nature of its pathophysiology. This review assesses the potential of nanoparticle-driven pharmacotherapies to address the intricate challenges presented by IDD. We initially analyze the primary mechanisms driving IDD, with particular emphasis on mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and the inflammatory microenvironment, all of which play pivotal roles in disc degeneration. Then, we evaluate the application of metal-phenolic and catalytic nanodots in targeting mitochondrial defects and alleviating oxidative stress within the degenerative disc environment. Additionally, multifunctional and stimuli-responsive nanoparticles are explored for their capacity to provide precise targeting and controlled therapeutic release, offering improved localization and sustained delivery. Finally, we outline future research directions and identify emerging trends in nanoparticle-based therapies, highlighting their potential to significantly advance IDD treatment by overcoming the limitations of conventional therapeutic modalities and enabling more effective, targeted management strategies.

Drug retention after intradiscal administration

Intradiscal drug delivery is a promising strategy for treating intervertebral disk degeneration (IVDD). Local degenerative processes and intrinsically low fluid exchange are likely to influence drug retention. Understanding their connection will enable the optimization of IVDD therapeutics. Release and retention of an inactive hydrophilic fluorine-19 labeled peptide (19F-P) as model for regenerative peptides was studied in a whole IVD culture model by measuring the 19F-NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) signal in culture media and IVD tissue extracts. In another set-up, noninvasive near-infrared imaging was used to visualize IR-780, as hydrophobic small molecular drug model, retention upon injection into healthy and degenerative caudal IVDs in a rat model of disk degeneration. Furthermore, IR-780-loaded degradable polyester amide microspheres (PEAM) were injected into healthy and needle pricked degenerative IVDs, subcutaneously, and in knee joints with and without surgically-induced osteoarthritis (OA). Most 19F-P was released from the IVD after 7 days. IR-780 signal intensity declined over a 14-week period after bolus injection, without a difference between healthy and degenerative disks. IR-780 signal declined faster in the skin and knee joints compared to the IVDs. IR-780 delivery by PEAMs enhanced disk retention beyond 16 weeks. Moreover, in degenerated IVDs the IR-780 signal was higher over time than in healthy IVDs while no difference between OA and healthy joints was noted. We conclude that the clearance of peptides and hydrophobic small molecules from the IVD is relatively fast. These results illustrate that development of controlled release formulations should take into account the target anatomical location and local (patho)biology.

Evolution and advancements in genomics and epigenomics in OA research: How far we have come

OBJECTIVE

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent musculoskeletal disease affecting articulating joint tissues, resulting in local and systemic changes that contribute to increased pain and reduced function. Diverse technological advancements have culminated in the advent of high throughput "omic" technologies, enabling identification of comprehensive changes in molecular mediators associated with the disease. Amongst these technologies, genomics and epigenomics - including methylomics and miRNomics, have emerged as important tools to aid our biological understanding of disease.

DESIGN

In this narrative review, we selected articles discussing advancements and applications of these technologies to OA biology and pathology. We discuss how genomics, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) methylomics, and miRNomics have uncovered disease-related molecular markers in the local and systemic tissues or fluids of OA patients.

RESULTS

Genomics investigations into the genetic links of OA, including using genome-wide association studies, have evolved to identify 100+ genetic susceptibility markers of OA. Epigenomic investigations of gene methylation status have identified the importance of methylation to OA-related catabolic gene expression. Furthermore, miRNomic studies have identified key microRNA signatures in various tissues and fluids related to OA disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Sharing of standardized, well-annotated omic datasets in curated repositories will be key to enhancing statistical power to detect smaller and targetable changes in the biological signatures underlying OA pathogenesis. Additionally, continued technological developments and analysis methods, including using computational molecular and regulatory networks, are likely to facilitate improved detection of disease-relevant targets, in-turn, supporting precision medicine approaches and new treatment strategies for OA.

Effective delivery of miR-150-5p with nucleus pulposus cell-specific nanoparticles attenuates intervertebral disc degeneration

BACKGROUND

The use of gene therapy to deliver microRNAs (miRNAs) has gradually translated to preclinical application for the treatment of intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD). However, the effects of miRNAs are hindered by the short half-life time and the poor cellular uptake, owing to the lack of efficient delivery systems. Here, we investigated nucleus pulposus cell (NPC) specific aptamer-decorated polymeric nanoparticles that can load miR-150-5p for IDD treatment.

METHODS

The role of miR-150-5p during disc development and degeneration was examined by miR-150-5p knockout (KO) mice. Histological analysis was undertaken in disc specimens. The functional mechanism of miR-150-5p in IDD development was investigated by qRT-PCR assay, Western blot, coimmunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence. NPC specific aptamer-decorated nanoparticles was designed, and its penetration, stability and safety were evaluated. IDD progression was assessed by radiological analysis including X-ray and MRI, after the annulus fibrosus needle puncture surgery with miR-150-5p manipulation by intradiscal injection of nanoparticles. The investigations into the interaction between aptamer and receptor were conducted using mass spectrometry, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations.

RESULTS

We investigated NPC-specific aptamer-decorated polymeric nanoparticles that can bind to miR-150-5p for IDD treatment. Furthermore, we detected that nanoparticle-loaded miR-150-5p inhibitors alleviated NPC senescence in vitro, and the effects of the nanoparticles were sustained for more than 3 months in vivo. The microenvironment of NPCs improves the endo/lysosomal escape of miRNAs, greatly inhibiting the secretion of senescence-associated factors and the subsequent degeneration of NPCs. Importantly, nanoparticles delivering miR-150-5p inhibitors attenuated needle puncture-induced IDD in mouse models by targeting FBXW11 and inhibiting TAK1 ubiquitination, resulting in the downregulation of NF-kB signaling pathway activity.

CONCLUSIONS

NPC-targeting nanoparticles delivering miR-150-5p show favorable therapeutic efficacy and safety and may constitute a promising treatment for IDD.

Stimuli-Responsive Delivery Systems for Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

As a major cause of low back pain, intervertebral disc degeneration is an increasingly prevalent chronic disease worldwide that leads to huge annual financial losses. The intervertebral disc consists of the inner nucleus pulposus, outer annulus fibrosus, and sandwiched cartilage endplates. All these factors collectively participate in maintaining the structure and physiological functions of the disc. During the unavoidable degeneration stage, the degenerated discs are surrounded by a harsh microenvironment characterized by acidic, oxidative, inflammatory, and chaotic cytokine expression. Loss of stem cell markers, imbalance of the extracellular matrix, increase in inflammation, sensory hyperinnervation, and vascularization have been considered as the reasons for the progression of intervertebral disc degeneration. The current treatment approaches include conservative therapy and surgery, both of which have drawbacks. Novel stimuli-responsive delivery systems are more promising future therapeutic options than traditional treatments. By combining bioactive agents with specially designed hydrogels, scaffolds, microspheres, and nanoparticles, novel stimuli-responsive delivery systems can realize the targeted and sustained release of drugs, which can both reduce systematic adverse effects and maximize therapeutic efficacy. Trigger factors are categorized into internal (pH, reactive oxygen species, enzymes, etc.) and external stimuli (photo, ultrasound, magnetic, etc.) based on their intrinsic properties. This review systematically summarizes novel stimuli-responsive delivery systems for intervertebral disc degeneration, shedding new light on intervertebral disc therapy.

MicroRNA-targeting nanomedicines for the treatment of intervertebral disc degeneration

Low back pain stands as a pervasive global health concern, afflicting almost 80% of adults at some point in their lives with nearly 40% attributable to intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD). As only symptomatic relief can be offered to patients there is a dire need for innovative treatments.Given the accumulating evidence that multiple microRNAs (miRs) are dysregulated during IVDD, they could have a huge potential against this debilitating condition. The way miRs can profoundly modulate signaling pathways and influence several cellular processes at once is particularly exciting to tackle this multifaceted disorder. However, miR delivery encounters extracellular and intracellular biological barriers. A promising technology to address this challenge is the vectorization of miRs within nanoparticles, providing both protection and enhancing their uptake within the scarce target cells of the degenerated IVD. This comprehensive review presents the diverse spectrum of miRs' connection with IVDD and demonstrates their therapeutic potential when vectorized in nanomedicines.

Core-Shell Structured Nanozyme with PDA-Mediated Enhanced Antioxidant Efficiency to Treat Early Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Early intervention during intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) plays a vital role in inhibiting its deterioration and activating the regenerative process. Aiming at the high oxidative stress (OS) in the IDD microenvironment, a core-shell structured nanozyme composed of Co-doped NiO nanoparticle (CNO) as the core encapsulated with a polydopamine (PDA) shell, named PDA@CNO, was constructed, hoping to regulate the pathological environment. The results indicated that the coexistence of abundant Ni3+/Ni2+and Co3+/Co2+redox couples in CNO provided rich catalytic sites; meanwhile, the quinone and catechol groups in the PDA shell could enable the proton-coupled electron transfer, thus endowing the PDA@CNO nanozyme with multiple antioxidative enzyme-like activities to scavenge •O2-, H2O2, and •OH efficiently. Under OS conditions in vitro, PDA@CNO could effectively reduce the intracellular ROS in nucleus pulposus (NP) into friendly H2O and O2, to protect NP cells from stagnant proliferation, abnormal metabolism (senescence, mitochondria dysfunction, and impaired redox homeostasis), and inflammation, thereby reconstructing the extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis. The in vivo local injection experiments further proved the desirable therapeutic effects of the PDA@CNO nanozyme in a rat IDD model, suggesting great potential in prohibiting IDD from deterioration.

Evidence of residual micellar structures in a lipid nanocapsule dispersion. A multi-technique approach

Nanoemulsions are metastable emulsions in the nanometric range which can be obtained using low-energy processes. A decade ago, it was demonstrated that a non-negligible amount of residual surfactant micelles may coexist with the oil nanodroplets in a model oil/surfactant system. Those micelles were called "wasted" micelles as they did not participate in the formation of the nanodroplets. Little attention has been focused on the potential presence or effect of such secondary structures in nanoemulsions used as drug delivery systems. Here, we present an extensive characterization of lipid nanocapsules, a nanoemulsion obtained from a medium-chain triglyceride mixed with a pegylated surfactant by a process comprising a temperature-dependent phase inversion followed by a cold-water quench. Lipid nanocapsules demonstrate a very good shelf stability. First, for clarity and academic purposes, we briefly present the pros and the cons of the various diffusion-based characterization techniques used i.e., multi-angle and single-angle dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, and diffusometry nuclear magnetic resonance. Then, combining all these techniques, we show that up to 40 wt% of the surfactant is not involved in the lipid nanocapsule construction but forms residual micellar structures. Those micelles also contain a small quantity of medium-chain triglyceride (2 wt% of the initial amount) and encapsulate around 40 wt% of a fluorescent dye originally dispersed in the oily phase.

MicroRNA-155 suppressed cholesterol-induced matrix degradation, pyroptosis and apoptosis by targeting RORα in nucleus pulposus cells

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is associated with low back pain, yet its inherent mechanism remains obscure. Hypercholesteremia was regarded as a risk factor for IDD, and our previous study showed that cholesterol accumulation could elicit matrix degradation in the nucleus pulposus (NP). MicroRNA-155 (miR-155) was substantiated as protective in IDD, but its role in cholesterol-induced IDD was unclear. The present study investigated whether miR-155 could mediate cholesterol-related IDD and its internal mechanisms. In vivo experiments revealed high-fat diet-induced hypercholesteremia in wild-type (WT) mice along with the occurrence of IDD, whereas Rm155LG transgenic mice showed milder NP degeneration, as evidenced by Safranin O-fast green (SF) staining and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Meanwhile, IHC showed that NLRP3 and Bax expression was also suppressed in Rm155LG mice. In vitro studies using Western blotting (WB) and immunofluorescence (IF) confirmed that the miR-155 mimic could alleviate cholesterol-induced matrix degradation, apoptosis and pyroptosis in NP. Moreover, RORα was upregulated in severely degenerated NP compared to mild IDD. It was also noted that RORα was suppressed in Rm155LG mice. In this study, we demonstrated that miR-155 could target RORα and that inhibition of RORα could prevent cholesterol-induced matrix degradation, apoptosis, and pyroptosis in NP, indicating the protective effect of miR-155 in cholesterol-induced IDD by targeting RORα.

Core-Shell Type Lipidic and Polymeric Nanocapsules: the Transformative Multifaceted Delivery Systems

Amongst the several nano-drug delivery systems, lipid or polymer-based core-shell nanocapsules (NCs) have garnered much attention of researchers owing to its multidisciplinary properties and wide application. NCs are structured core-shell systems in which the core is an aqueous or oily phase protecting the encapsulated drug from environmental conditions, whereas the shell can be lipidic or polymeric. The core is stabilized by surfactant/lipids/polymers, which control the release of the drug. The presence of a plethora of biocompatible lipids and polymers with the provision of amicable surface modifications makes NCs an ideal choice for precise drug delivery. In the present article, multiple lipidic and polymeric NC (LNCs and PNCs) systems are described with an emphasis on fabrication methods and characterization techniques. Far-reaching applications as a carrier or delivery system are demonstrated for oral, parenteral, nasal, and transdermal routes of administration to enhance the bioavailability of hard-to-formulate drugs and to achieve sustained and targeted delivery. This review provide in depth understanding on core-shell NC's mechanism of absorption, surface modification, size tuning, and toxicity moderation which overshadows the drawbacks of conventional approaches. Additionally, the review shines a spotlight on the current challenges associated with core-shell NCs and applications in the foreseeable future.

The potential mechanisms and application prospects of non-coding RNAs in intervertebral disc degeneration

Low back pain (LBP) is one of the most common musculoskeletal symptoms and severely affects patient quality of life. The majority of people may suffer from LBP during their life-span, which leading to huge economic burdens to family and society. According to the series of the previous studies, intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is considered as the major contributor resulting in LBP. Furthermore, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), mainly including microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), can regulate diverse cellular processes, which have been found to play pivotal roles in the development of IDD. However, the potential mechanisms of action for ncRNAs in the processes of IDD are still completely unrevealed. Therefore, it is challenging to consider ncRNAs to be used as the potential therapeutic targets for IDD. In this paper, we reviewed the current research progress and findings on ncRNAs in IDD: i). ncRNAs mainly participate in the process of IDD through regulating apoptosis of nucleus pulposus (NP) cells, metabolism of extracellular matrix (ECM) and inflammatory response; ii). the roles of miRNAs/lncRNAs/circRNAs are cross-talk in IDD development, which is similar to the network and can modulate each other; iii). ncRNAs have been attempted to combat the degenerative processes and may be promising as an efficient bio-therapeutic strategy in the future. Hence, this review systematically summarizes the principal pathomechanisms of IDD and shed light on the therapeutic potentials of ncRNAs in IDD.