Liposomes encapsulating novel antimicrobial peptide Omiganan: Characterization and its pharmacodynamic evaluation in atopic dermatitis and psoriasis mice model

Nanocarrier-Mediated Dermal Drug Delivery System of Antimicrobial Agents for Targeting Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

Antimicrobial resistance in disease-causing microbes is seen as a severe problem that affects the entire world, makes therapy less effective, and raises mortality rates. Dermal antimicrobial therapy becomes a desirable choice in the management of infectious disorders since the rising resistance to systemic antimicrobial treatment frequently necessitates the use of more toxic drugs. Nanoparticulate systems such as nanobactericides, which have built-in antibacterial activity, and nanocarriers, which function as drug delivery systems for conventional antimicrobials, are just two examples of the treatment methods made feasible by nanotechnology. Silver nanoparticles, zinc oxide nanoparticles, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles are examples of inorganic nanoparticles that are efficient on sensitive and multidrug-resistant bacterial strains both as nanobactericides and nanocarriers. To stop the growth of microorganisms that are resistant to standard antimicrobials, various antimicrobials for dermal application are widely used. This review covers the most prevalent microbes responsible for skin and soft tissue infections, techniques to deliver dermal antimicrobials, topical antimicrobial safety concerns, current issues, challenges, and potential future developments. A thorough and methodical search of databases, such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and others, using specified keyword combinations, such as "antimicrobials," "dermal," "nanocarriers," and numerous others, was used to gather relevant literature for this work.

Liposomes and Their Therapeutic Applications in Enhancing Psoriasis and Breast Cancer Treatments

Psoriasis and breast cancer are two examples of diseases where associated inflammatory pathways within the body's immune system are implicated. Psoriasis is a complex, chronic and incurable inflammatory skin disorder that is primarily recognized by thick, scaly plaques on the skin. The most noticeable pathophysiological effect of psoriasis is the abnormal proliferation of keratinocytes. Breast cancer is currently the most diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related death among women globally. While treatments targeting the primary tumor have significantly improved, preventing metastasis with systemic treatments is less effective. Nanocarriers such as liposomes and lipid nanoparticles have emerged as promising drug delivery systems for drug targeting and specificity. Advances in technologies and drug combinations have emerged to develop more efficient lipid nanocarriers to include more than one drug in combinational therapy to enhance treatment outcomes and/or relief symptoms for better patients' quality of life. Although there are FDA-approved liposomes with anti-cancer drugs for breast cancer, there are still unmet clinical needs to reduce the side effects associated with those nanomedicines. Hence, combinational nano-therapy may eliminate some of the issues and challenges. Furthermore, there are no nanomedicines yet clinically available for psoriasis. Hence, this review will focus on liposomes encapsulated single and/or combinational therapy to augment treatment outcomes with an emphasis on the effectiveness of combinational therapy within liposomal-based nanoparticulate drug delivery systems to tackle psoriasis and breast cancer. This review will also include an overview of both diseases, challenges in delivering drug therapy and the roles of nanomedicines as well as psoriasis and breast cancer models used for testing therapeutic interventions to pave the way for effective in vivo testing prior to the clinical trials.

Advancing psoriasis drug delivery through topical liposomes

Psoriasis, recognized as a chronic inflammatory skin disorder, disrupts immune system functionality. Global estimates by the World Psoriasis Day consortium indicate its impact on approximately 130 million people, constituting 4 to 5 percent of the worldwide population. Conventional drug delivery systems, mainly designed to alleviate psoriasis symptoms, fall short in achieving targeted action and optimal bioavailability due to inherent challenges such as the drug's brief half-life, instability, and a deficiency in ensuring both safety and efficacy. Liposomes, employed in drug delivery systems, emerge as highly promising carriers for augmenting the therapeutic efficacy of topically applied drugs. These small unilamellar vesicles demonstrate enhanced penetration capabilities, facilitating drug delivery through the stratum corneum layer of skin. This comprehensive review article illuminates diverse facets of liposomes as a promising drug delivery system to treat psoriasis. Addressing various aspects such as formulation strategies, encapsulation techniques, and targeted delivery, the review underscores the potential of liposomes in enhancing the efficacy and specificity of psoriasis treatments.

Pharmacokinetics study of ginsenoside Rg1 liposome by pulmonary administration

Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1), a monomer saponin component, is one of the components with the highest content in total saponins of Panaxnotoginseng. It had various pharmacological effects. The bioavailability of oral tablets is only 1-20 %, and it is eliminated quickly in the blood. The development of new dosage forms and new routes of administration of ginsenoside Rg1 with sustained release and high bioavailability has become a significant problem to be solved. The Rg1 liposomes study used a thin film dispersion ultrasound method for its preparation. This study focused the pharmacokinetic parameters of ginsenoside Rg1 liposomes in rats through the lung perfusion method. Ginsenoside Rg1 liposomes were round and uniform in shape, the particle size was 2-3 μm, and the encapsulation efficiency of ginsenoside Rg1 liposome was 51.2 %. Results showed that, after pulmonary administration of ginsenoside Rg1, the time of ginsenoside Rg1 detected by Rg1 liposomes was longer than that of Rg1 solution, the relative bioavailability of ginsenoside Rg1 liposome lung administration AUC liposome/AUC solution = 122.67 %. These results provided the scientific theoretical and experimental basis for further development of new dosage forms and new routes of administration of ginsenoside Rg1.

Recent Approaches for the Topical Treatment of Psoriasis Using Nanoparticles

Psoriasis (PSO) is a chronic autoimmune skin condition characterized by the rapid and excessive growth of skin cells, which leads to the formation of thick, red, and scaly patches on the surface of the skin. These patches can be itchy and painful, and they may cause discomfort for patients affected by this condition. Therapies for psoriasis aim to alleviate symptoms, reduce inflammation, and slow down the excessive skin cell growth. Conventional topical treatment options are non-specific, have low efficacy and are associated with adverse effects, which is why researchers are investigating different delivery mechanisms. A novel approach to drug delivery using nanoparticles (NPs) shows promise in reducing toxicity and improving therapeutic efficacy. The unique properties of NPs, such as their small size and large surface area, make them attractive for targeted drug delivery, enhanced drug stability, and controlled release. In the context of PSO, NPs can be designed to deliver active ingredients with anti-inflammatory effect, immunosuppressants, or other therapeutic compounds directly to affected skin areas. These novel formulations offer improved access to the epidermis and facilitate better absorption, thus enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of conventional anti-psoriatic drugs. NPs increase the surface-to-volume ratio, resulting in enhanced penetration through the skin, including intracellular, intercellular, and trans-appendage routes. The present review aims to discuss the latest approaches for the topical therapy of PSO using NPs. It is intended to summarize the results of the in vitro and in vivo examinations carried out in the last few years regarding the effectiveness and safety of nanoparticles.

Recent Advances in Nanocarrier-based Approaches to Atopic Dermatitis and Emerging Trends in Drug Development and Design

Atopic dermatitis (AD), commonly known as Eczema, is a non-communicable skin condition that tends to become chronic. The deteriorating immunological abnormalities are marked by mild to severe erythema, severe itching, and recurrent eczematous lesions. Different pharmacological approaches are used to treat AD. The problem with commercial topical preparations lies in the limitation of skin atrophy, systemic side effects, and burning sensation that decreases patient compliance. The carrier-based system promises to eliminate these shortcomings; thus, a novel approach to treating AD is required. Liposomes, microemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanoemulsions, etc., have been developed recently to address this ailment. Despite extensive research in the development method and various techniques, it has been challenging to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of these carrier- based systems, which illustrates a gap among the different research areas. Further, different soft wares and other tools have proliferated among biochemists as part of a cooperative approach to drug discovery. It is crucial in designing, developing, and analyzing processes in the pharmaceutical industry and is widely used to reduce costs, accelerate the development of biologically innovative active ingredients, and shorten the development time. This review sheds light on the compilation of extensive efforts to combat this disease, the product development processes, commercial products along with patents in this regard, numerous options for each step of computer-aided drug design, including in silico pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity screening or predictions that are important in finding the drug-like compounds.

Development of an Effective Psoriasis Treatment by Combining Tacrolimus-Encapsulated Liposomes and Iontophoresis

Psoriasis is a chronic T-cell-mediated autoimmune skin disease. Tacrolimus (FK506) is commonly used treatment for psoriasis. However, since the molecular weight of FK506 is more than 500 Da, its skin penetration is limited, so that there is a need to improve the penetrability of FK506 to allow for more effective treatment. To this end, we employed iontophoresis (ItP), which is a physical, intradermal drug delivery technology that relies on the use of weak electric current. Previous findings suggest that activation of cell signaling by the weak electric current applied during ItP may affect the expression of inflammatory cytokines, leading to aggravation of psoriasis. In this study, we analyzed the effect of ItP on the expression of various inflammatory cytokines in the skin, and subsequently examined the therapeutic effect of ItP using negatively-charged liposomes encapsulating FK506 (FK-Lipo) in a rat psoriasis model induced by imiquimod. We found that ItP (0.34 mA/cm2, 1 h) did not affect mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines or epidermis thickness, indicating that ItP is a safe technology for psoriasis treatment. ItP of FK-Lipo suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokines induced by imiquimod treatment to a greater extent than skin treated with FK506 ointment for 1 h. Furthermore, epidermis thickening was significantly suppressed only by ItP of FK-Lipo. Taken together, results of this study demonstrate the successful development of an efficient treatment for psoriasis by combining FK-Lipo and ItP, without disease aggravation associated with the weak electric current.

Ceragenins exhibit bactericidal properties that are independent of the ionic strength in the environment mimicking cystic fibrosis sputum

The purpose of the work was to investigate the impact of sodium chloride (NaCl) on the antimicrobial efficacy of ceragenins (CSAs) and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) against bacterial and fungal pathogens associated with cystic fibrosis (CF) lung infections. CF-associated bacterial (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Ochrobactrum spp., and Staphylococcus aureus), and fungal pathogens (Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis) were used as target organisms for ceragenins (CSA-13 and CSA-131) and AMPs (LL-37 and omiganan). Susceptibility to the tested compounds was assessed using minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and bactericidal concentrations (MBCs), as well as by colony counting assays in CF sputum samples supplemented with various concentrations of NaCl. Our results demonstrated that ceragenins exhibit potent antimicrobial activity in CF sputum regardless of the NaCl concentration when compared to LL-37 and omiganan. Given the broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of ceragenins in the microenvironments mimicking the airways of CF patients, ceragenins might be promising agents in managing CF disease.

Development and application of novel peptide-formulated nanoparticles for treatment of atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic inflammatory skin condition that is characterized by skin inflammation, itching, and redness. Although various treatments can alleviate symptoms, they often come with side effects, highlighting the need for new treatments. Here, we discovered a new peptide-based therapy using the intra-dermal delivery technology (IDDT) platform developed by Remedi Co., Ltd (REMEDI). The platform screens and identifies peptides derived from proteins in the human body that possess cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) properties. We screened over 1000-peptides and identified several derived from the Speckled protein (SP) family that have excellent CPP properties and have anti-inflammatory effects. We assessed these peptides for their potential as a treatment for atopic dermatitis. Among them, the RMSP1 peptide showed the most potent anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathways while possessing CPP properties. To further improve efficacy and stability, we developed a palmitoylated version called Pal-RMSP1. Formulation studies using liposomes (Pal-RMSP1 LP) and micelles (Pal-RMSP1 DP) demonstrated improved anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and enhanced therapeutic effects in vivo. Our study indicates that nano-formulated Pal-RMSP1 could have the potential to become a new treatment option for atopic dermatitis.

An infection-microenvironment-targeted and responsive peptide-drug nanosystem for sepsis emergency by suppressing infection and inflammation

Sepsis is a life-threatening emergency that causes millions of deaths every year due to severe infection and inflammation. Nevertheless, current therapeutic regimens are inadequate to promptly address the vast diversity of potential pathogens. Omiganan, an antimicrobial peptide, has shown promise for neutralizing endotoxins and eliminating diverse pathogens. However, its clinical application is hindered by safety and stability concerns. Herein, we present a nanoscale drug delivery system (Omi-hyd-Dex@HA NPs) that selectively targets infectious microenvironments (IMEs) and responds to specific stimuli for efficient intervention in sepsis. The system consists of omiganan-dexamethasone conjugates linked by hydrazone bonds which self-assemble into nanoparticles coated with a hyaluronic acid (HA). The HA coating not only facilitates IMEs-targeting through interaction with intercellular-adhesion-molecule-1 on inflamed endotheliocytes, but also improves the biosafety of the nanosystem and enhances drug accumulation in primary infection sites triggered by hyaluronidase. The nanoparticles release dual drugs in IMEs through pH-sensitive cleavage of hydrazone bonds to eradicate pathogens and suppress inflammation. In multiple tissue infection and sepsis animal models, Omi-hyd-Dex@HA NPs exhibited rapid source control and comprehensive inflammation reduction, thereby preventing subsequent fatal complications and significantly improving survival outcomes. The bio-responsive and self-delivering nanosystem offers a promising strategy for systemic sepsis treatment in emergencies.

Challenges and Future Trends in Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis represents a complex and multidimensional interaction that represents potential fields of preventive and therapeutic management. In addition to the treatment armamentarium available for atopic dermatitis, novel drugs targeting significant molecular pathways in atopic dermatitis biologics and small molecules are also being developed given the condition's complex pathophysiology. While most of the patients are expecting better efficacy and long-term control, the response to these drugs would still depend on numerous factors such as complex genotype, diverse environmental triggers and microbiome-derived signals, and, most importantly, dynamic immune responses. This review article highlights the challenges and the recently developed pharmacological agents in atopic dermatitis based on the molecular pathogenesis of this condition, creating a specific therapeutic approach toward a more personalized medicine.

Insights into Asymmetric Liposomes as a Potential Intervention for Drug Delivery Including Pulmonary Nanotherapeutics

Liposome-based drug delivery systems are nanosized spherical lipid bilayer carriers that can encapsulate a broad range of small drug molecules (hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs) and large drug molecules (peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids). They have unique characteristics, such as a self-assembling bilayer vesicular structure. There are several FDA-approved liposomal-based medicines for treatment of cancer, bacterial, and viral infections. Most of the FDA-approved liposomal-based therapies are in the form of conventional "symmetric" liposomes and they are administered mainly by injection. Arikace^® is the first and only FDA-approved liposomal-based inhalable therapy (amikacin liposome inhalation suspension) to treat only adults with difficult-to-treat Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) lung disease as a combinational antibacterial treatment. To date, no "asymmetric liposomes" are yet to be approved, although asymmetric liposomes have many advantages due to the asymmetric distribution of lipids through the liposome's membrane (which is similar to the biological membranes). There are many challenges for the formulation and stability of asymmetric liposomes. This review will focus on asymmetric liposomes in contrast to conventional liposomes as a potential clinical intervention drug delivery system as well as the formulation techniques available for symmetric and asymmetric liposomes. The review aims to renew the research in liposomal nanovesicle delivery systems with particular emphasis on asymmetric liposomes as future potential carriers for enhancing drug delivery including pulmonary nanotherapeutics.

The future of recombinant host defense peptides

The antimicrobial resistance crisis calls for the discovery and production of new antimicrobials. Host defense peptides (HDPs) are small proteins with potent antibacterial and immunomodulatory activities that are attractive for translational applications, with several already under clinical trials. Traditionally, antimicrobial peptides have been produced by chemical synthesis, which is expensive and requires the use of toxic reagents, hindering the large-scale development of HDPs. Alternatively, HDPs can be produced recombinantly to overcome these limitations. Their antimicrobial nature, however, can make them toxic to the hosts of recombinant production. In this review we explore the different strategies that are used to fine-tune their activities, bioengineer them, and optimize the recombinant production of HDPs in various cell factories.

Novel Therapeutic Strategies in the Topical Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

Topical agents that are currently available for the treatment of atopic dermatitis may represent a valid approach in the management of mild or mild-moderate cases, whereas they are often supplemented with systemic therapies for handling more complex or unresponsive cases. The most used compounds include topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors, although their use might be burdened by side effects, poor response, and low patient compliance. Consequently, new innovative drugs with higher efficacy and safety both in the short and long term need to be integrated into clinical practice. A deeper understanding of the complex pathogenesis of the disease has led to identifying new therapeutic targets and to the development of innovative therapeutics. This narrative review aims to collect data on selected promising topical drugs that are in an advanced stage of development.