Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from Brazilian wildlife revealed abundant new genotypes

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection in a captive white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) in Finland

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a zoonotic pathogen that causes infections in several animal species, including erysipelas in swine, lambs and turkeys. In October 2022, a captive, 1-year-old white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), kept in a herd of five peccaries in a zoo in Finland, suddenly developed signs of inappetence and reluctance to move. Despite treatment, the peccary was found dead. At necropsy, the main gross finding was severe acute segmental necrotizing enteritis. Several other organs had lesions compatible with acute septicaemia, including petechiae and ecchymoses. Histopathology of the intestine revealed severe acute multifocal necrotizing enteritis with neutrophilic vasculitis, vascular fibrinoid microthrombi and myriad clusters of densely packed, rod-shaped, gram-positive bacteria on the tips of the intestinal villi. Bacterial culture was identified as E. rhusiopathiae by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a naturally occurring E. rhusiopathiae infection in a captive white-lipped peccary. Our findings suggest that regular vaccination of captive white-lipped peccaries should be taken into consideration in preventing infections due to E. rhusiopathiae.

Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in South America: occurrence, immunity, and fate of infection

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite with a worldwide distribution. Toxoplasma gondii infections are of great concern for public health, and their impact is usually most severe in pregnant women and their foetuses, and in immunocompromised individuals. Displaying considerable genetic diversity, T. gondii strains differ widely according to geographical location, with archetypal strains predominantly found in the Northern Hemisphere and non-archetypal (atypical) strains, with highly diverse genotypes, found mainly in South America. In this review, we present an overview of the identification and distribution of non-archetypal strains of T. gondii. Special attention is paid to the strains that have been isolated in Brazil, their interaction with the host immunological response, and their impact on disease outcomes. The genetic differences among the strains are pivotal to the distinct immunological responses that they elicit. These differences arise from polymorphisms of key proteins released by the parasite, which represent important virulence factors. Infection with divergent non-archetypal strains can lead to unusual manifestations of the disease, even in immunocompetent individuals.

Exploring the epidemiological role of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a successful coccidian parasite able to infect all warm-blooded animals and humans, causing one of the most common zoonoses worldwide. The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is one of the feline potential hosts of T. gondii in Switzerland, but little is known about its epidemiological role as a definitive or intermediate host. Serum samples from 183 Eurasian lynx collected from 2002 to 2021 were tested for antibodies to T. gondii by ELISA, IFAT and in case of inconclusive results, immunoblot. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 150 of 183 (82%) Eurasian lynx. Older age, good health status and a low-altitude habitat were found to be significant predictors for seropositivity. T. gondii oocysts were detected in 3 of 176 (1.7%) faecal samples, indicating the Eurasian lynx as a definitive host. In addition, T. gondii DNA was detected in skeletal muscle (7/88), heart muscle (2/26) and/or brain tissue (2/36) from 10 different lynx by real-time PCR. In one animal, a T. gondii-like tissue cyst was observed in heart muscle and confirmed as T. gondii by immunohistochemistry (1/20) and real-time PCR. With an adapted nested-PCR-multilocus-sequence typing (MLST) and in silico restriction-fragment-length-polymorphism analysis (RFLP) approach two different T. gondii genotypes were detected: a lineage II variant (ToxoDB #3) in three animals (two oocyst samples and one heart muscle sample) and a novel genotype exhibiting both type II and III alleles in a further animal (skeletal muscle). The present results indicate that T. gondii infection is widespread in the Swiss lynx population. The Eurasian lynx may contribute to environmental contamination with oocysts and is able to harbour the parasite in different tissues. Genotyping revealed the presence of both a common T. gondii lineage in Europe and a previously unknown genotype and thus shedding more light on the complex molecular epidemiology of T. gondii.

Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from birds in the world: A systematic review

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is one of the most important foodborne pathogens that infects a large number of vertebrate species and has a cosmopolitan distribution. Birds as intermediate hosts are very important in the life cycle of T. gondii and they can be a main source of infection for humans and felids, as well as other animals. Most species of birds feed from the ground and are the best indicator for soil contamination with T. gondii oocysts. Hence, T. gondii strains isolated from birds can represent different genotypes circulating in the environment and their main predators and consumers. The recent systematic review tries to represent the population structure of T. gondii in birds around the world. Six English language databases were searched from 1990 to 2020 to find the related studies and overall, 1275 isolates of T. gondii were separated from the analyzed samples in birds. The results of our study revealed that atypical genotypes were predominant (58.8%, 750 out of 1275). Types II, III, and I had less frequency with prevalence rates of 23.4%, 13.8%, and 2%, respectively. No isolates of Type I were reported from Africa. Summarizing ToxoDB genotypes circulating in birds around the world manifested that ToxoDB #2 was the most common (101/875), followed by ToxoDB #1 (80/875), and #3 (63/875). Totally, the results of our review represented the high genetic diversity of T. gondii with circulating non-clonal strains in birds from South and North America, while clonal parasites with low genetic diversity were predominant in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Isolation and characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from human congenital toxoplasmosis cases reveal a new virulent genotype in São Paulo, Brazil

Toxoplasma gondii causes severe disease in congenitally infected fetuses. The severity of fetal infection is related to the gestational stage at the time of maternal infection, parasite burden, and genotypic characteristics. South America has a high incidence of congenital toxoplasmosis and has the highest genotypic diversity of the parasite. In Brazil, clinical toxoplasmosis in children is notorious, however there are very limited data regarding the strains recovered from congenital infections. In this study, T. gondii strains from two cases of severe congenital toxoplasmosis from the São Paulo metropolitan area were isolated (TgHumIMTBr2 and TgHumIMTBr3) and biologically and molecularly characterized using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and microsatellite analysis, revealing a new non-archetypal virulent genotype designated as #318. The other isolate, genotype #175, has already been described in domestic and wild animals in Brazil, but is now associated with acute toxoplasmosis in humans. These data reinforce the role of non-archetypal T. gondii genotypes in the severity of human congenital toxoplasmosis, highlighting the importance of studies focused on parasite isolation and genotyping for a better understanding of the virulence of isolates from human toxoplasmosis and contributing to the knowledge of the diversity of T. gondii in Brazil.

Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from rodents in the world: A systematic review

Toxoplasmosis is one of the most frequent food-borne infections in humans caused by an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. Rodents, as intermediate and reservoir hosts, play key role in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis; because they are the main source of infection for the Felidae family members and establish the parasite life cycle. Hence, the infectious isolates of T. gondii in rodents may be the main genotypes infecting the environment, humans and animals. Our review aimed to present the population structure of T. gondii in these mammals. To access the relevant studies, six English language databases were systematically searched from 1990 to 2019. Finally, 3,395 samples of rodents were analysed for the genotyping data and 118 isolates were separated from the samples. The results of the present study showed that atypical genotypes were dominant with a frequency of 65.2% of the total isolates (77 out of 118). Clonal Types II, III and I had less frequency, respectively. Type I clonal isolates were identified only from Asia. The examination of genotypes circulating in rodents around the world revealed that ToxoDB #1 or #3 (Type II) were the most common, followed by ToxoDB #9 and #2, respectively. Overall, our data showed low genetic diversity of T. gondii with circulating clonal strains in rodents compare to the isolates from Europe, North America and Africa, while non-clonal parasites with high genetic diversity were dominant in South America and Asia.

Molecular screening for Sarcocystidae in muscles of wild birds from Brazil suggests a plethora of intermediate hosts for Sarcocystis falcatula

The genus Sarcocystis and the species Toxoplasma gondii are the most prevalent sarcocystid organisms found in birds. Molecular phylogenies based on the first internal transcribed spacer of the ribosomal coding DNA (ITS1) have been widely used to identify them. Here, pectoral muscles from 400 wild birds from Brazil were screened by means of molecular methods using nested PCR, and Sanger sequencing yielded amplicons. A pan-sarcocystid ITS1-directed nested PCR revealed 28 birds infected by Sarcocystis falcatula (ten Piciformes, eight Psittaciformes, five Columbiformes, two Accipitriformes, one Anseriformes, one Passeriformes and one Strigiformes); one infected by Sarcocystis halieti (one Accipitriformes); nine infected by unknown or undescribed Sarcocystis (six Passeriformes, one Piciformes, one Cathartiformes and one Cuculiformes); and six harboring Toxoplasma gondii DNA (three Pelecaniformes, two Falconiformes and one Columbiformes). Samples harboring S. falcatula-related ITS1 sequences were further characterized by means of PCR and sequencing of genetic sequences of three surface antigen coding genes (SAGs). From this, 10 new allelic combinations of SAGs (SAG2, SAG3 and SAG4) were identified, in addition to 11 SAG allelic combinations already found in Brazil. Samples with S. falcatula-unrelated ITS1 sequences were further characterized by means of PCR and sequencing of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I coding sequences (CO1) and 18S ribosomal DNA gene (18S rDNA). This study was the first extensive survey of wild birds in Brazil for Sarcocystidae species. It provides the first molecular evidence of natural S. falcatula infection in 14 species, including in the order Piciformes, and shows the high genetic diversity of S. falcatula in intermediate hosts in South America. Evidence of occurrence of at least three non-described species of Sarcocystis was also presented in this study. This survey corroborated the ubiquity of T. gondii infection but revealed surprisingly low prevalence of this parasite (1.5%).

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Extensive survey of free-living wild birds in Brazil for Sarcocystidae species.

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Sarcocystis falcatula was detected in Piciformes birds for the first time.

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Sarcocystis falcatula has an extensive genetic diversity in Brazil.

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Three non-described species of Sarcocystis were detected.

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Sarcocystis halieti was detected for the first time in the Americas.

Presence of atypical genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii isolated from cats in the state of Bahia, Northeast of Brazil

In this study, 20 blood, heart, and brain samples were collected from euthanized cats at the Zoonosis Control Centers and Veterinary Clinics in the state of Bahia, Brazil. The sera were examined for anti-T. gondii antibodies using the indirect hemagglutination test. The brains and hearts of seven seropositive cats were ground, and peptide digestion was performed for bioassay in mice. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated in 5/7 (71.42%) of seropositive cats. In these isolates, the parasite was genotyped using the Polymerase chain reaction, associated with the DNA fragment polymorphism obtained by restriction enzyme PCR-RFLP technique with 11 markers (SAG1, 5’-SAG2, 3’-SAG2, alt. SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico, and CS3) and 15 microsatellite markers (TUB-2, W35, TgM-A, B18, B17, M33, IV.1, XI.1, M48, M102, N60, N82, AA, N61, N83). The analysis of the isolates by PCR-RFLP revealed five distinct genotypes. Three of these genotypes have never been reported before; one corresponded to the TgDgCo13 genotype, and one incomplete genotype. In genotyping analysis using microsatellite markers, it was observed that the isolates showed atypical alleles in the typing and fingerprint markers. This revealed five atypical genotypes. The typing marker B17 showed the highest degree of atypia. This study is the first to report the genotyping of T. gondii obtained from naturally infected cats in Bahia, Northeast Brazil. The genotypes found in this study were different from those found in other studies conducted in Bahia, which included different species of animals. None of the clonal lineages I, II, or III were found. This study demonstrates the diversity of T. gondii in the study region, with the presence of unusual genotypes, reaffirming the genetic variability of the parasite in Brazil.

Inhibition of nitric oxide production of activated mice peritoneal macrophages is independent of the Toxoplasma gondii strain

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis and is controlled by activated macrophages. However, infection of macrophages by tachyzoites induces TGF-β signaling (TGF-s) inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production. NO inhibition may be a general escape mechanism of distinct T. gondii strains.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate in activated macrophages the capacity of T. gondii strains of different virulence and genetics (RH, type I; ME-49, type II; VEG, type III; P-Br, recombinant) to evade the NO microbicidal defense system and determine LC3 loading to the parasitophorous vacuole.

METHODS

Activated peritoneal macrophages were infected with the different T. gondii strains, NO-production was evaluated by the Griess reagent, and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, TGF-s, and LC3 localisation assayed by immunofluorescence.

FINDINGS

Only RH persisted in macrophages, while VEG was more resistant than P-Br and ME-49. All strains induced TGF-s, degradation of inducible nitric oxide synthase, and NO-production inhibition from 2 to 24 h of infection, but only RH sustained these alterations for 48 h. By 24 h of infection, TGF-s lowered in macrophages infected by ME-49, and P-Br, and NO-production recovered, while VEG sustained TGF-s and NO-production inhibition longer. LC3 loading to parasitophorous vacuole was strain-dependent: higher for ME-49, P-Br and VEG, lower for RH. All strains inhibited NO-production, but only RH sustained this effect probably because it persisted in macrophages due to additional evasive mechanisms as lower LC3 loading to parasitophorous vacuole.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

These results support that T. gondii can escape the NO microbicidal defense system at the initial phase of the infection, but only the virulent strain sustain this evasion mechanism.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from the State of São Paulo, Brazil: Serology, molecular characterization, and hunter's perception on toxoplasmosis

The consumption of wild boar meat, common in many countries, became popular in Brazil after the hunting of these animals was authorized in 2013. The meat of these animals is often consumed by hunters and their social groups, and their offal is occasionally used as supplemental food in the diet of hunting dogs. Given the high frequency of foodborne diseases related to wild boar meat consumption in other countries, including toxoplasmosis, knowledge on these diseases is essential for risk assessment and elaboration of education campaigns for the exposed public. Thus, this study aimed diagnosing, isolating, and genotyping Toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boars. For that, we obtained samples of serum and tissues (brain, tongue, diaphragm, and heart) from 26 wild boar hunted in three areas in São Paulo State, Brazil, based on convenience sampling strategy. The serum samples were submitted to the indirect immunofluorescence reaction test (IFAT) test while the tissue samples (n = 22) were used to perform a bioassay in mice to isolate the parasite. The isolated samples were genetically characterized by PCR-RFLP with SAG1, 5' and 3' SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico markers. Questionnaires were also formulated and applied to wildlife hunters to assess knowledge about toxoplasmosis. The seroprevalence of T. gondii was 76.9% (20/26), with titers ranging from 16 to 1024. Viable parasites accounted for 4.5% (1/22) of the samples. The ToxoDB #6 genotype of TgJava1 alone was detected. Most interviewed hunters, 84.2% (16/19) consume game meat and a few of them (15.7%; 3/19) prefer undercooked meat. Also, 15.7% (3/19) of the hunters reported supplementing their hunting dogs' diet with wild boar meat and/or offal. As antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 76.9% (20/26) of the studied wild boars, we concluded that infection by T. gondii is frequent in wild boars used for human and animal consumption in the studied areas. Although genotype #6 is commonly found in Brazil in domestic animals, wild animals, and humans, causing everything from mild clinical symptoms to death, this study found, for the first time, the detection of this genotype in wild boars. These results also reaffirm the importance of these animals as a possible source of T. gondii infection for humans and domestic animals.

Epidemiological Significance of Toxoplasma Gondii Infections in Wild Rodents: 2009-2020

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Rodents are one of the most important intermediate hosts for T. gondii because they are preyed on by cats, who in turn excrete the environmentally resistant oocysts in their feces and thus spread the infection. Information on T. gondii infections is spread in numerous reports and is not easily accessible to readers. Here, we review prevalence, persistence of infection, clinical disease, epidemiology, and genetic diversity of T. gondii infections in wild rodents worldwide. Data are tabulated by country, by each rodent species alphabetically, and chronologically. Recent genetic diversity of T. gondii strains in rodents is critically evaluated.

Sarcocystidae in wild birds of southeastern Brazil

This study aimed to identify members of the Sarcocystidae family in naturally infected wild birds at a rescue center in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. The heart and brain of 44 wild birds were evaluated by bioassay in mice to detect T. gondii, and extracted DNA was used for nested PCR of the 18S ribosomal DNA gene to detect members of the Sarcocystidae family. The positive samples were sequenced, assembled, edited and compared with sequences deposited in GenBank. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated from six (13.6%) out of 44 birds. Toxoplasma gondii DNA was identified in 10/44 (22.7%) of the birds. The amplified sequences exhibited 100% similarity with the DNA of the ME49 strain of T. gondii. Sarcocystis DNA (99% similarity) was identified in 5/44 (11.4%) of the birds. T. gondii and Sarcocystis spp. are common in wild birds in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Molecular Characterization of New Haplotype of Genus Sarcocystis in Seabirds from Magdalena Island, Southern Chile

Simple Summary

Sarcocystidae is a family of apicomplexan protozoa highly prevalent in vertebrates. The definitive hosts of sarcocystids eliminate oocysts or sporocysts that infect intermediate hosts. After infection, mature tissue cysts (sarcocysts) develop in intermediate hosts, mostly in muscle and neurological tissues. Sarcocysts are infectious for definitive hosts, which acquire them through carnivorous or scavenging habits. Intermediate hosts and definitive hosts are the natural hosts of sarcocystids in which infections are usually mildly or not symptomatic. In 2017, muscular and neurological tissues of 22 birds from Magdalena Islands, southern coast of Chile, were screened for the presence of DNA of sarcocystids. DNA of organisms of the genus Sarcocystis was identified in two Chilean skuas (Stercorarius chilensis). The genetic makeup of the parasite detected in skuas was unprecedented and probably represent a new species in the genus. It is well known that Sarcocystis may cause severe infections in aberrant hosts, which are susceptible animals that do not behave as natural hosts for the parasite and have low resistance to the infection, thus more studies are needed to characterize this parasitosis in skuas and other hosts to understand the epidemiology of the infection and its impact on the health of marine fauna.

Abstract

Evidence of sarcocystid infection was investigated in samples of 16 penguins (Spheniscus. magellanicus), four Dominican gulls (Larus dominicanus) and two Chilean skuas (Stercorarius chilensis) found in Madalenas Islands, Chile, in 2017. Samples of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and brain from all birds were screened by a pan-sarcocystid nested-PCR targeting a short fragment of the gene encoding the small ribosomal unit (nPCR-18Sa). The only two positive samples by nPCR-18Sa, both from skuas, were tested by a nested-PCR directed to the internal transcribed spacer 1 (nPCR-ITS1), also a pan-sarcocystidae nested-PCR, and to a nested-PCR directed to the B1 gene (nPCR-B1), for the exclusive detection of Toxoplasma gondii. The two nPCR-18Sa-positive samples were nPCR-ITS1-positive and nPCR-B1-negative. The nPCR-ITS1 nucleotide sequences from the two skuas, which were identical to each other, were revealed closely related to homologous sequences of Sarcocystis halieti, species found in seabirds of northern hemisphere. Larger fragments of genes encoding 18S and partial sequences of genes coding for cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 were also analyzed, corroborating ITS1 data. The haplotypes found in the skuas are unprecedent and closely related to species that use birds as the definitive host. Further studies need to be carried out to detect, identify and isolate this parasite to understand the epidemiology of the infection and its impact on the health of marine fauna.

Occurrence and diversity of Sarcocystidae protozoa in muscle and brain tissues of bats from São Paulo state, Brazil

Studies on infectious and emerging diseases caused by bats have been increasing worldwide due to their well-recognised status as a reservoir species for various infectious agents as well as their close relationship to humans and animals. This study reports the molecular frequency and diversity of the parasites belonging to the Sarcocystidae family in bats in São Paulo state, Brazil. A total of 2892 tissue samples (brain and pectoral muscle/heart homogenates) from 1921 bats belonging to 36 species were collected, and the Sarcocystidae protozoan 18S ribosomal RNA encoding genes (18S rDNA) were detected by nested PCR and Sanger sequencing. The relative prevalence of Sarcocystidae species was 4.7% (91/1921) among 16 bat species, including insectivorous (n = 65), frugivorous (n = 13) and nectarivorous (n = 11) bats. From 66 sequenced positive samples, 50 were found to be suitable for analysis. Ten samples from insectivorous and nectarivorous bats showed 100% similarity with Neospora caninum (n = 1), Hammondia hammondi (n = 1), Cystoisospora canis (n = 1), Nephroisospora eptesici (n = 1), Sarcocystis (Frenkelia) glareoli (n = 1), and Toxoplasma gondii (n = 5). The 45 non-T. gondii samples revealed 15 different 18S rDNA alleles with identities varying from 96.1 to 100% with several Sarcocystidae species, which might suggest that bats can harbour a large variety of Sarcocystidae organisms. From the five T. gondii-positive tissue samples, three samples from two different bat specimens of the insectivorous Eumops glacinus were characterised using 11 PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers, revealing the non-archetypal ToxoDB genotypes #6 (type BrI), which is one of the most prevalent in different hosts and regions from Brazil, and #69. We recommend the inclusion of T. gondii as a differential diagnosis for rabies and other neurological syndromes in bats.

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Molecular detection of Sarcocystidae protozoa in 4.7% (91/1921) bats from Brazil.

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From 36 bat species examined, 16 were positive for Sarcocystidae protozoa.

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Results suggest large diversity of Sarcocystidae species in bats.

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Toxoplasma gondii ToxoDB-RFLP genotypes type BrI and #69 revealed for two bats.

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T. gondii should be included as a differential diagnosis for rabies in bats.

Toxoplasma gondii isolated from a Brazilian patient with rare pulmonary toxoplasmosis has a novel genotype and is closely related to Amazonian isolates

Pulmonary toxoplasmosis is rare in immunocompetent patients. Herein, a Toxoplasma gondii strain isolated in Brazil from an immunocompetent patient who had severe pulmonary involvement was biologically and molecularly characterized for the first time. The TgHumIMTBr1 isolate was bioassayed in mice showing a virulent phenotype. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) genotyping using 11 markers [SAG1, SAG2 (5´3´SAG2 and alt. SAG2), SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico and CS3] revealed a new non-archetypal genotype assigned as #312. Genotyping using ROP18/ROP5 markers exhibited the virulent combination of alleles 4 and 1. Microsatellite analysis using 15 markers (TUB2, W35, TgM-A, B18, B17, M33, IV.1, X1.1, N60, N82, AA, N61, N83, M48 and M102) revealed an atypical genotype with three unique alleles and a rare combination of alleles 246 (W35) and 203 (TgM-A) that is typical of the Amazon region. Non-archetypal genotypes with unique alleles may function in the occurrence of severe toxoplasmosis in immunocompetent patients in Brazil. Attempts to isolate or molecularly detect T. gondii for further genotyping studies would contribute to the understanding of causes related to the severity of toxoplasmosis in immunocompetent patients.

Genetic and histopathological characterization of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes isolated from free-range chickens reared in the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil

This study aimed to genetically characterize Toxoplasma gondii isolates obtained from free-range chickens reared in the metropolitan region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and to evaluate the morbidity and histological changes associated with these isolates in mice. A mouse bioassay was used to isolate T. gondii from a pool of tissue samples (brain, heart, and thigh muscles) collected from 163 chickens. The 36 isolates obtained were genetically characterized by restriction fragment polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of the SAG1, 5'-3'SAG2, aSAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico, and CS3 genomic regions. Seventeen atypical genotypes were identified and nine of them were reported for the first time. All identified genotypes caused clinical signs and histological changes in mice, with the majority being associated with high cumulative morbidity (65%) and severe or very severe histological changes (76%). The exclusive identification of atypical genotypes, with a predominance of new genotypes, indicates great genetic diversity of T. gondii in the region studied. In addition, the finding that all identified genotypes caused clinical signs and often severe histological changes in mice suggests potentially relevant virulence of these strains.

Recent epidemiologic and clinical Toxoplasma gondii infections in wild canids and other carnivores: 2009-2020

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in wild canids and other carnivores for the past decade. Seroprevalence estimates of T. gondii worldwide were tabulated for each host. Seroprevalence in wild foxes was very high compared with farmed Arctic foxes. Economic and public health aspects of some of the carnivore species raised for fur and meat (raccoon dogs, mink) are discussed. Diagnostic efficacies of different serological methods and PCR methods are discussed. Clinical toxoplasmosis was observed mainly in carnivores concurrently infected with immunosuppressive Canine Distemper Virus infection. Abortion and blindness were noted in mink. Genetic diversity of isolates using DNA derived from 162 (89 viable T. gondii isolates and 73 DNA extracted from tissues) of wild carnivores from several countries is discussed. However, 69 of the 162 T. gondii isolates were strains from USA and these were genetically diverse with predominance of ToxoDB genotypes #4 and #5 (haplogroup 12). Only limited information is available concerning genotyping of T. gondii isolates from other countries; none of the 93 T. gondii isolates from other countries (Brazil, China, France, Grenada) were haplogroup 12.

Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in a lethal toxoplasmosis outbreak affecting captive howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.)

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease that affects humans and warm-blooded animals. This study describes an outbreak of toxoplasmosis in howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.) and survival of capuchins (Sapajus apella), under the same environmental conditions.

METHODS

Howler monkeys were submitted to post-mortem examination. Tissue samples were processed to histopathology and immunohistochemistry to detect lesions and tachyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii. Tissue samples were also frozen and submitted to PCR and genotyping of T. gondii.

RESULTS

Typical lesions were observed in several organs including the liver, lymph node, and brain, with intralesional cysts and tachyzoites of T. gondii demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. T. gondii genomic sequences were amplified by PCR, and genotyping characterized the same T. gondii clone in all howler monkeys.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the notion that some species of neotropical primates are highly susceptible to toxoplasmosis and the hypothesis that capuchins (S. apella) may be resistant.

Isolation and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in the Midwestern Brazil revealed high genetic diversity and new genotypes

We aimed to describe the genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from domestic animals, wildlife and humans in the Midwestern Brazil. For this purpose, fragments of tissue samples (heart, brain and lung) from 35 dogs, four cats, 105 wildlife, and amniotic fluids from eight pregnant women were collected and submitted to mouse bioassay test. In a total, 22 isolates from nine dogs, one cat, ten wild animals and two women were obtained. The DNA was extracted from T. gondii isolates (lungs and brains of infected mice) and from "primary samples" (aliquots of tissue homogenate from wild animals and amniotic fluids from pregnant women) in order to screen using a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) targeting a repeated 529-base pairs fragment of the T. gondii genome. All positive PCR samples were genotyped using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to report isolates of T. gondii from Leopardus pardalis, Crax fasciolata, and Dasyprocta azarae. Moreover, multilocus PCR-RFLP revealed 11 T. gondii RFLP genotypes, comprising nine previously described, including the archetypal lineage #2 type III (n = 1); two clonal Brazilian lineages, #6 type BrI (n = 1) and #8 type BrIII (n = 5); #14 (n = 2), #41 (n = 1), #108 (n = 1), #140 (n = 2), #166 (n = 4), #190 (n = 1), one potentially mixed, and two new described genotypes in two isolates. Our results confirmed the high diversity of T. gondii strains in Brazil, including identical genotypes circulating among humans, domestic dogs and wildlife.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in sheep intended for human consumption in the Rondônia state, Western Brazilian Amazon

The aim of this study was to carry out a seroepidemiological study of anti-T. gondii and anti-N. caninum antibodies in serum samples from sheep intended for human consumption in the Rondônia state, in the Western Brazilian Amazon, and identify possible risk factors associated with seropositivity. The analysis of the 616 sheep serum samples revealed animal-level seroprevalence of T. gondii in the order of 52.4 % and of N. caninum of 60.6 %. Prevalence of co-infections was 33.4 %. The herd-level seroprevalence was 100 % for both the parasites. Applying of multivariate logistic regression analysis, test of the association between seroprevalence of T. gondii infection and the potential predictors showed that feed, fetal malformation, abortion, neurological problems (lambs), presence of rodents were the significant (P < 0.05) predictors. The variables presence of rodents, cats, wild animals and main activity showed statistical association (P < 0.05) with the seroprevalence of N. caninum. Due to the high prevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum found in this study, the absence of specific slaughterhouses for sheep and raw or undercooked sheep meat for human consumption we concluded that sheep can represent an important source of infection for humans.

Environmental factors associated With Toxoplasma gondii Exposure in Neotropical Primates of Costa Rica

The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) has been found in more than 350 species of homoeothermic vertebrates in diverse climates and geographic areas. In most animals, T. gondii produces mild or asymptomatic infection. However, acute and hyperacute toxoplasmosis is associated with high mortality rates observed in Neotropical primates (NP) in captivity. These primates are distributed in 20 countries across the Americas, and although infection has been reported in certain countries and species, toxoplasmosis in the wild and its impact on NP population survival is unknown. Differences among species in exposure rates and disease susceptibility may be due in part to differences in host behavior and ecology. Four species of NP are found in Costa Rica, i.e., howler (Alouatta palliata), spider (Ateles geoffroyi), capuchin (Cebus imitator), and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedii). This study reports NP exposure to T. gondii using the modified agglutination test in 245 serum samples of NP (198 wild and 47 from captivity) from Costa Rica. Associations of serostatus with environmental (forest cover, annual mean temperature), anthropogenic (human population density), and biological (sex) variables in howler and capuchin monkeys were evaluated. The seroprevalence among wild NP was 11.6% (95% CI = 7.7–17.34), compared with 60% in captive monkeys (95% CI = 44.27–73.63), with significant differences between species (X² = 20.072; df = 3, p = 0.000164), suggesting an effect of behavior and ecology. In general, antibody titers were low for wild NP (<1:128) and high for captive NP (>1:8192), suggesting higher exposure due to management factors and increased life span in captivity. Seropositivity in howler monkeys was positively related to forest cover and inversely related to annual rainfall. For capuchins, annual rainfall was inversely related to seropositivity. Surveillance of T. gondii exposure in NP in captivity and in the wild is required to understand drivers of the infection and develop novel strategies to protect them.

Zoonotic parasites infecting free-living armadillos from Brazil

Armadillos are specialist diggers and their burrows are used to find food, seek shelter and protect their pups. These burrows can also be shared with dozens of vertebrate and invertebrate species and; consequently, their parasites including the zoonotics. The aim of this study was to diagnose the presence of zoonotic parasites in four wild-caught armadillo species from two different Brazilian ecosystems, the Cerrado (Brazilian savanna) and the Pantanal (wetland). The investigated parasites and their correspondent diseases were: Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmosis), Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease), Leishmania spp., (leishmaniasis), Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Paracoccidioidomicosis) and Mycobacterium leprae (Hansen's disease). Forty-three free-living armadillos from Pantanal and seven road-killed armadillos from the Cerrado were sampled. Trypanosoma cruzi DTU TcIII were isolated from 2 out of 43 (4.65%) armadillos, including one of them also infected with Trypanosoma rangeli. Antibodies anti-T. gondii were detected in 13 out of 43 (30.2%) armadillos. All seven armadillos from Cerrado tested positive for P. brasiliensis DNA, in the lungs, spleen, liver fragments. Also, by molecular analysis, all 43 individuals were negative for M. leprae and Leishmania spp. Armadillos were infected by T. cruzi, T. rangeli, P. brasiliensis and presented seric antibodies to T. gondii, highlighting the importance of those armadillos could have in the epidemiology of zoonotic parasites.

Occurrence of Atypical and New Genotypes of Toxoplasma Gondii in Free-Range Chickens Intended for Human Consumption in Brazil

Purpose

The aim of the present study was to detect and genotype T. gondii in free-range chickens destined to human consumption in Alagoas state, Brazil.

Methods

Two hundred blood samples were collected from free-range chickens and submitted to indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT). Brain tissue from 14 animals randomly selected were subjected to mouse bioassay. Positive samples in mouse bioassay were submitted to PCR and genotyped by PCR–RFLP.

Results

Out of two hundred blood samples from chickens, 72 (36%) samples were considered positive by IFAT. Two T. gondii strains were isolated, both being characterized as atypical and classified as #146 and a new genotype, named #279 in ToxoDB database.

Conclusions

Our results showed a sero-occurrence of T. gondii in free-range chickens intended for humans, and the genetic diversity of the parasite in Brazil, with a new genotype described.

Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii in opossums from Southeastern, Brazil

Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide-distributed zoonotic disease of great relevance to public health. Many wildlife species, including marsupials of the genus Didelphis, are considered hosts for Toxoplasma gondii, which makes them to have a possible role in the dispersion and maintenance of this parasite in nature. This study provides data on the molecular detection of T. gondii in D. aurita opossums from an urbanized area of Southeastern Brazil. Animals were captured and blood and/or spleen samples were collected. Real Time PCR was performed for the detection of T. gondii. From the opossums captured, 26.3% (n = 15/57) scored positive, with a frequency of 21.6% (n = 11/51) in blood, and 66.7% (n = 6/9) in spleen samples. BLAST analysis demonstrated 100% identity and 100% cover query with sequences of T. gondii available in GenBank database. Data herein reported present great public health importance, since Didelphis spp. are usually observed inhabiting close to human dwellings, which facilitates their contact with people and domestic animals, and consequently, the transmission of zoonotic agents. However, further studies are needed to elucidate whether these opossums play an important role in the zoonotic cycle of T. gondii in urban areas of Brazil.

First isolation and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in a free-living giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) revealed a unique non-archetypal genotype

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii can infect virtually all warm-blooded animals worldwide but little is known of its infection in the endangered giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). The present study found antibodies to T. gondii in 13 of 23 free-living M. tridactyla from the northwest region of São Paulo state, Brazil, by the Modified Agglutination Test (MAT, cut-off titer 1:25). Unfrozen tissues of seven M. tridactyla were bioassayed in mice and viable T. gondii (strain designated TgMytrBrSP1) isolated from one seropositive giant anteater. To our knowledge, this is a new host record for T. gondii. Genotyping using PCR-RFLP revealed the Brazilian clonal Type BrIII genotype, and a unique non-archetypal genotype was revealed by microsatellite analysis.

Stray dogs in the tropical state of Chiapas, Mexico, harbour atypical and novel genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii

Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii remains a relevant topic of study, since genotypes can be related to the presentation and severity of toxoplasmosis. To date, 292 restriction fragment length polymorphism genotypes have been described around the world. Serosurveys in southeastern Mexico have documented exposure in over 70% of people and certain animals. Recently, we have described new genotypes and mixed infections in feral cats from Quintana Roo. Thus, the aim of this study was to genotype T. gondii and to describe its genetic variability, from naturally infected stray dogs of Chiapas, which has different geographical and climatic conditions from those found at the Yucatan Peninsula and the other parts of the country. Eleven stray dogs were captured and bled to obtain DNA, and then they were euthanized to perform necropsies and to collect target tissues. Diagnosis of T. gondii was done by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and endpoint PCR. Genotyping was carried out, amplifying 12 polymorphic markers and 15 microsatellites. Atypical SAG3 gene products were cloned and sequenced. All blood samples of dogs were positive to T. gondii DNA by PCR. Two isolates were obtained from pooled heart and diaphragm tissue of two dogs. Two complete PCR-RFLP genotypes were identified (type BrIII and #28). Four animals had mixed infections. A new RFLP atypical allele for the SAG3 marker was observed; cloning and sequencing analysis of this locus revealed mixed infection by a strain identical to GT1, and one type I × II intragenic recombinant. The microsatellite analysis revealed that both isolates are atypical. Thus, atypical new genotypes of T. gondii and mixed infections were found in dogs of Chiapas. The results found here and in genotyping studies in México suggest that the southeastern region favours wide genetic diversity of T. gondii and the possible presence of virulent genotypes such as those found in central and South America.

Atypical Toxoplasma gondii genotype from a sheep and a pig on Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil, showed different mouse virulence profiles

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite which can infect almost all warm-blooded animals. Toxoplasma gondii isolates from Brazil have greater genetic diversity with a predominance of virulent and atypical genotypes, compared with the Northern Hemisphere. Considering that previous studies have demonstrated a high seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies in animals from Fernando de Noronha Island, the aim of this study was to isolate, genetically characterize, and determine mouse virulence of isolates of T. gondii from livestock from this Brazilian island. Two T. gondii isolates were obtained by mouse bioassay from brain from one sheep and one pig. Genotyping was performed by PCR-RFLP using 10 genetic markers (SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22- 8, c29-2, PK1, L358, and Apico) and an atypical genotype of T. gondii (ToxoDB #146) was identified for both isolates. Genotyping of four ROP loci indicated different alleles for ROP16 and mouse virulence analysis revealed different profiles (intermediate and low virulence). This is the first report of this genotype being described in a pig and a sheep.

Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii, Leishmania spp., and Leptospira spp. in Free-Ranging Six-Banded Armadillos (Euphractus sexcinctus) from Northeastern Brazil

Antibodies to pathogens of public health importance were investigated in 33 free-ranging six-banded armadillos (Euphractus sexcinctus) from Brazil. The frequency of seropositive animals for Toxoplasma gondii, Leishmania spp., and Leptospira spp. were two, three, and two, respectively.

Virulence of atypical Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated in French Guiana in a murine model

Background. Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite of warm-blooded vertebrates. Most infections in immunocompetent patients are asymptomatic. However, since 2000s, strains with particular genetic profiles that differ from the known clonal type (type I, II, III), have been described. In French Guiana, these strains are highly pathogenic in immunocompetent patients. They have defined a new clinical entity called Amazonian Toxoplasmosis. The present study aims to further improve our knowledge on the pathogenicity of these Amazonian T. gondii strains in comparison with three reference strains using Swiss strain mice. With these data, we tried to establish a predictive virulence score to classify these strains, but also to correlate this virulence with the severity of the disease in infected patients. Results. All the virulence indicators revealed that the Amazonian strains isolated in French Guiana presented a high virulence profile, but lower than the highly virulent type I reference RH strain. The findings reveal differences in virulence between human and animal strains, but also between anthropized and wild strains. Conclusion. In addition to being a clinically relevant animal model of Amazonian Toxoplasmosis, this model could also provide a solid experimental basis for future studies aiming to investigate the underlying mechanisms of Amazonian Toxoplasmosis disease.

A systematic review of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes and feline: Geographical distribution trends

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is well known for its ability to virtually infect all warm-blooded vertebrates. Although felines as the definitive hosts have an important role in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis, there are few descriptions of genetic diversity in the world. The present review study aimed to describe the population structure of T. gondii in these animal species. For the purpose of the study, five English language databases reporting data on T. gondii genotyping in cats were searched within March-June 2019. This study is registered on the site of CAMARADES-NC3Rs (15-Jan-2018). The searching process resulted in the inclusion of 50 reports published from 1992 to June 2019. The data revealed that 47,390 samples were genotyped into 662 T. gondii DNA/isolates. Globally, atypical genotypes were predominant (47.7%, n = 316); in addition, Type II clonal strains were the second most common genotype (37%, n = 244). These results suggested an epidemic population structure in America and Asia, and a clonal population structure in Europe and Africa. Genotype #3 was found to be dominant in Africa, Europe and Oceania continents. Furthermore, genotypes #9 and #5 were prevalent in Asia and America, respectively. Additionally, genotypes #2, #3, #5 and #20 were common genotypes in domestic and sylvatic cycles from family Felidae. Collectively, this systematic review indicated a large degree of genetic diversity and circulation of mouse-virulent T. gondii strains in this family. However, further studies are necessary to better understand the population structure of T. gondii in these animal species and determine the significance of their features.

Toxoplasma gondii in Captive Wild Felids of Mexico: Its Frequency and Capability to Eliminate Oocysts

There is little information about Toxoplasma gondii in wild felids, even when these species have been associated with cases of toxoplasmosis in humans. In this study, samples of serum and whole blood were collected from 42 felids from 10 different species, in 4 Mexican zoos. Stool samples from 36 animals were also collected, corresponding to 82% of the felids included in the study. Stool samples were used for the search of oocysts by light field microscopy and PCR. Serum samples were analyzed by indirect immunoglobulin G (IgG) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). DNA samples were purified from whole blood and stool for the amplification of a fragment of the SAG1 gene of T. gondii by a nested PCR (nPCR). The seroprevalence of IgG anti-T. gondii-specific antibodies by means of the ELISA was 100% (42/42) and 52.4% (22/42) by IFAT. The titers obtained varied from 1:80 to 1:2560. DNA of T. gondii was detected in 9.5% (4/42) of the blood samples by using nPCR. No oocysts were observed in the stool samples analyzed by light field microscopy. However, the DNA of the parasite was identified in 14.3% (5/35) of the stool samples evaluated. These results indicate a high prevalence of T. gondii in the studied populations of wild felids in captivity, with evidence of parasitemia and elimination of few oocysts even in adult hosts.

Prevalence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora spp. in equids of Western Pará, Brazil

The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora spp. in equids raised for distinct purposes in the western state of Pará, Brazil, and to identify potential risk factors associated with parasite infection. A cross-sectional study was conducted with cluster sampling in 101 farms from 18 municipalities (farm horses). In visited municipalities, samples from sport and cart horses were included. Serum was obtained for detecting antibodies against T. gondii and Neospora spp. using indirect fluorescent antibody test, with a cut-off point of 1:64 and 1:50, respectively. Association analysis, using the chi-square test, was performed to evaluate possible risk factors related to the prevalence of antibodies. A total of 1298 equids were sampled (947 farm, 240 sport, and 111 cart horses), including 1244 horses, 2 donkeys, and 52 mules. The number of equids sampled per property ranged from 1 to 49. Of the total examined, 134 (10.3%) had antibodies against T. gondii, and of the 18 municipalities visited, 11 (61%) had at least one positive animal. Seventy-three of the 1298 equids (5.62%) from 44% of the municipalities tested positive for Neospora spp. The type of the animal (farm, sport, or carthorse) was not associated with the prevalence of antibodies against T. gondii; however, antibodies against Neospora spp. was more prevalent in carthorses (P = 0.001) (13.5%) than in farm (5.0%) and sport (4.6%) horses. Breed of the horse and the presence of cats were risk factors for the prevalence of antibodies against T. gondii, and presence of dogs was a risk factor for the prevalence of antibodies against Neospora spp. This is the first report of seropositive equids for T. gondii and Neospora spp. in the state of Pará contributing to the knowledge on epidemiology of the two parasites.

How does toxoplasmosis affect the maternal-foetal immune interface and pregnancy?

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite which, depending on the geographical location, can infect between 10% and 90% of humans. Infection during pregnancy may result in congenital toxoplasmosis. The effects on the foetus vary depending on the stage of gestation in which primary maternal infection arises. A large body of research has focused on understanding immune response to toxoplasmosis, although few studies have addressed how it is affected by pregnancy or the pathological consequences of infection at the maternal-foetal interface. There is a lack of knowledge about how maternal immune cells, specifically macrophages, are modulated during infection and the resulting consequences for parasite control and pathology. Herein, we discuss the potential of T. gondii infection to affect the maternal-foetal interface and the potential of pregnancy to disrupt maternal immunity to T. gondii infection.

Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii isolates obtained from free-living wild birds rescued in Southeastern Brazil

Recent studies carried out in Brazil have shown that strains from the same Toxoplasma gondii genotype can infect humans, domestic animals (dogs and cats) and animals slaughtered for human consumption (pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens), suggesting a common infection route. However, little is known about the importance of free-living wild birds within this epidemiological context. The objective of this work was to isolate, genotype, and evaluate the virulence for mice of new isolates of T. gondii obtained from free-living wild birds from the state of Minas Gerais, Southeastern Brazil. From August 2016 to June 2017, T. gondii was isolated from the hearts and brains collected from 6 out of 45 free-living wild birds, namely, a roadside hawk (Rupornis magnirostris), a campo flicker (Colaptes campestris), a southern caracara (Caracara plancus) and a tropical screech-owl (Megascops choliba), all rescued in Belo Horizonte. One isolate was obtained from a toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), rescued in Cristiano Otoni, and another was obtained from southern caracara, rescued in Santa Luzia. Five different genotypes were identified by PCR-RFLP. A unique genotype was shared in two different isolates obtained from a southern caracara and a toco toucan. This genotype has never been previously described in any other host or place. Three isolates were classified as of intermediary virulence and three isolates as avirulent for mice. The combined analysis of alleles ROP18/ROP5 (a serine/threonine kinase, and a polymorphic pseudokinase, respectively) was effective in determining the virulence of five of all the isolates with the exception of that from R. magnirostris. Atypical isolates of T. gondii obtained from free-living wild birds rescued in the state of Minas Gerais share the same genotypes of strains that infect humans, domestic animals, and animals slaughtered for human consumption.

Toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis caused by Toxoplasma gondii strain ToxoDB#65

Ocular toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is the most common cause of inflammation in the back of the eye. Analysis of the infecting strain may provide information regarding disease behavior and recurrence. Here, we describe clinical and epidemiological data for toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in two Brazilian women infected by T. gondii strain ToxoDB#65, living in an urban region of São Paulo State, Brazil.

Isolation and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from free-ranging and captive birds and mammals in Pernambuco state, Brazil

Recent genetic population studies on Toxoplasma gondii in Brazil have shown large genetic variability. The objective of the present study was to isolate and genotypically characterize T. gondii from free-ranging and captive wild mammals and birds in Pernambuco state, Brazil. Fragments of heart, brain, skeletal muscle and diaphragm tissue from 71 birds and 34 mammals, which were either free-ranging or captive, were collected. Samples from 32 of these animals were subjected to bioassays in mice. Samples from the remaining 73 animals underwent biomolecular diagnosis, using PCR technique, targeting a repetitive DNA fragment of 529 bp in T. gondii. A non-virulent isolate (TgButstBrPE1) was obtained from a free-ranging striated heron (Butorides striata) and, based on primary samples, seven animals were found to be positive. The primary samples and the isolate obtained were subjected to PCR-RFLP using the markers SAG1, 5'3'SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico and CS3. ToxoDB-RFLP genotype #13 from the striated heron isolate and Type BrIII genotype from a captive otter ( Lontra longicaudis) (PS-TgLonloBrPE1) were obtained. The present study describes the first isolation and genotypic characterization of T. gondii in free-ranging striated heron, and the first genotypic characterization of T. gondii in a captive otter.

Anticorpos anti-Toxoplasma gondii em carcarás (Caracara plancus) procedentes da região aeroportuária do Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil

RESUMO Objetivou-se com este estudo pesquisar a ocorrência de anticorpos anti-Toxoplasma gondii em carcarás (Caracara plancus) capturados no Aeroporto Internacional do Recife/Guararapes Gilberto Freyre, Pernambuco, Brasil. Foram analisadas 115 amostras de soros sanguíneos pelo teste de aglutinação modificada (IgG, MAT≥25) utilizando taquizoítos inativados em formalina. Do total de amostras analisadas, 5,21% (6/115) foram positivas para presença de anticorpos anti-T. gondii, 16,67% com título 1:25 (1/06) e 83,33% (5/06) com título 1:50. A ocorrência de anticorpos em carcarás procedentes de região aeroportuária fomenta a preocupação em relação a aspectos ainda pouco elucidados, relacionados principalmente à inserção de aves silvestres na cadeia epidemiológica da toxoplasmose conectada à ação antrópica, tornando próxima a interação entre animais silvestres, domésticos e o homem. Dessa forma, é notória a necessidade de estudos relacionados à dinâmica de transmissão entre os diferentes genótipos existentes nessa tríade e sua relação com o meio ambiente, a fim de determinar a influência dessa espécie animal na cadeia epidemiológica da toxoplasmose.

Anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in beef cattle slaughtered in the metropolitan region of Belém, Brazilian Amazon

Abstract The relevance of consuming raw or undercooked beef in the transmission of toxoplasmosis is unclear due to the high resistance of cattle to infection. However, this possibility needs to be considered in endemic areas, such as the Amazon, where the consumption of beef is frequent. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies in beef cattle slaughtered in the metropolitan region of Belem, Pará state, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 500 animals of both genders in a licensed slaughterhouse in Belém. Anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies were detected by an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) with a cut-off titer of 1:64. Anti-T. gondii antibodies were found in 203 animals (40.6%), with a titer of 64 in 112 animals (55.2%), 128 in 68 animals (33.5%), 256 in 15 animals (7.4%), 512 in 5 animals (2.5%), and 1,024 in 3 animals (1.4%). No significant difference was observed between males and females (p > 0.05). The high frequency of anti-T. gondii antibodies observed in beef cattle slaughtered in Belém indicates that the meat of these animals may be an important source of infection for humans and carnivorous domestic animals when inadequately cooked beef is consumed.

Cat-rodent Toxoplasma gondii Type II-variant circulation and limited genetic diversity on the Island of Fernando de Noronha, Brazil

Background

In Brazil, studies on animals and humans in mainland areas have shown that most strains of Toxoplasma gondii are pathogenic to mice and exhibit great genetic variability.

Results

In this study, using a set of 11 PCR-RFLP and 15 microsatellite markers, we isolated and genetically characterised T. gondii strains from one cat and three rats on Fernando de Noronha Island. The cat had antibodies to T. gondii, which were revealed using a modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off 1:25) and the seroprevalence among the 46 rodents was 15.2%. Viable T. gondii was isolated from one cat (TgCatBrFN1), two brown rats (TgRatnoBrFN1 and TgRatnoBrFN2) and one black rat (TgRatraBrFN1). Unlike the strains from mainland Brazil, these isolates were not pathogenic to outbred mice. The genotypes of these strains were compared with strains previously isolated on the island and in mainland Brazil. The analysis based on microsatellite data showed a limited genetic diversity of T. gondii on Fernando de Noronha Island with the majority of strains clustered into the following three groups: type II, III, and Caribbean 1.

Conclusions

There was little variation among strains within the same group, suggesting that the majority of strains circulating on Fernando de Noronha are derived from only a few strains that were recently introduced to the island, likely from imported cats. Except for the strain belonging to the Caribbean 1 group that originates from northeast Brazil, there was little evidence that strains from the other groups were introduced to Fernando de Noronha via mainland Brazil.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2150-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

First isolation and RFLP genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii from crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous-Linnaeus, 1766)

Wild animals may play an important role in the transmission and maintenance of Toxoplasma gondii in the environment. The purpose of the present study was to isolate and genotype T. gondii from a free-ranging crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous-Linnaeus, 1766). A crab-eating fox in critical health condition was attended in a veterinary hospital in Recife, Pernambuco State, Brazil. The animal died despite emergency treatment. The brain was collected aseptically and destined for mouse bioassay. One isolate of T. gondii was obtained, and Polymerase Chain Reaction - Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) was used to assess genetic variability at 11 markers (SAG1, SAG2, altSAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c228, c292, L358, PK1 and APICO). A murine model was used to assess the virulence of the isolate. Using the PCR-RFLP, genotype ToxoDB #13 was identified, which is considered an atypical strain. The isolate was classified as avirulent in the murine model. This is the first study to report T. gondii infection in the crab-eating fox.