Cost analysis comparing brachytherapy versus surgery for primary carcinoma of the tonsillar fossa and/or soft palate

Direct healthcare costs of oral cancer: A retrospective study from a tertiary care center

The aim of this study was to retrospectively evaluate the direct costs of OSCC treatment and postsurgical surveillance in a tertiary hospital in northeast Italy. Sixty-three consecutive patients surgically treated for primitive OSCC at S. Orsola Hospital in Bologna (Italy) between January 2018 and January 2020 were analyzed. Billing records of the Emilia Romagna healthcare system and institutional costs were used to derive specific costs for the following clinical categories: operating theatre costs, intensive and ordinary hospitalization, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, postsurgical complications, visits, and examinations during the follow-up period. The study population comprised 17 OSCC patients classified at stage I, 14 at stage II, eight at stage III, and 24 at stage IV. The estimated mean total direct cost for OSCC treatment and postsurgical surveillance was €26 338.48 per patient (stage I: €10 733, stage II: €19 642.9, stage III: €30 361.4, stage IV: €39 957.2). An advanced diagnosis (stages III and IV), complex surgical procedure, and loco-regional recurrences resulted in variables that were significantly associated with a higher cost of OSCC treatment and postsurgical surveillance. Redirection of funds used for OSCC treatment to screening measures may be an effective strategy to improve overall health outcomes and optimize national health resources.

Cost evaluations of radiotherapy: What do we know? An ESTRO-HERO analysis

Although economic evidence is becoming mandatory to support health care decision-making, challenges remain in generating high quality cost data, especially for complex and rapidly evolving treatment modalities, such as radiotherapy. The overall aim of this systematic literature review was to critically analyse the type and quality of radiotherapy cost information available in cost calculation studies, from the health care provider's perspective, published since 1981. A selection process, based on strict and explicit criteria, yielded 52 articles. In spite of meeting our criteria these studies displayed large heterogeneity in scope, costing method, inputs and outputs. The limited use of conventional costing methodologies along with insufficient information on resource inputs hampered comparability across studies. A consistent picture of radiotherapy costs, based on methodologically sound costing studies, has yet to emerge. These results call for developing a well-defined and generally accepted cost methodology for performing economic evaluation studies in radiotherapy.

Robotic Radiosurgery vs. Brachytherapy as a Boost to Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy for Tonsillar Fossa and Soft Palate Tumors: The Clinical and Economic Impact of an Emerging Technology

As a basis for making decisions regarding optimal treatment for patients with tonsillar fossa and soft palate tumors, we conducted a preliminary investigation of costs and quality of life (QoL) for two modalities [brachytherapy (BT) and robotic radiosurgery] used to boost radiation to the primary tumors following external beam radiotherapy. BT was well established in our center; a boost by robotic radiosurgery was begun more recently in patients for whom BT was not technically feasible. Robotic radiosurgery boost treatment has the advantage of being non-invasive and is able to reach tumors in cases where there is deep parapharyngeal tumor extension. A neck dissection was performed for patients with nodal-positive disease. Quality of life (pain and difficulty swallowing) was established in long-term follow-up for patients undergoing BT and over a one-year follow-up in robotic radiosurgery patients. Total hospital costs for both groups were computed. Our results show that efficacy and quality of life at one year are comparable for BT and robotic radiosurgery. Total cost for robotic radiosurgery was found to be less than BT primarily due to the elimination of hospital admission and operating room expenses. Confirmation of robotic radiosurgery treatment efficacy and reduced morbidity in the long term requires further study. Quality of life and cost analyses are critical to Health Technology Assessments (HTA). The present study shows how a preliminary HTA of a new medical technology such as robotic radiosurgery with its typical hypofractionation characteristics might be based on short-term clinical outcomes and assumptions of equivalence.

Analysis of Charges Associated with Definitive Nonsurgical Therapy for Early-Stage Lateralized Tonsil Cancer

OBJECTIVE

The cost of treatment as it affects comparative effectiveness is becoming increasingly more important. Because cost data are not readily available, we evaluated the charges associated with definitive nonsurgical therapy for early-stage lateralized tonsil cancers.

METHODS

Patients treated with unilateral radiation therapy (RT) for T1 or T2 tonsil cancer between 1995 and 2007 were retrospectively reviewed. Total and radiation-specific charges, from 3 months before to 4 months after radiation, were adjusted for inflation. All facets of treatment were evaluated for significant associations with total billing.

RESULTS

Eighty-four patients were identified. Three-year overall survival, disease-specific survival, and recurrence-free survival were 97 % [95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.88-0.99], 98 % (95 % CI 0.89-1), and 96 % (95 % CI 0.88-0.99), respectively. The median for radiation-specific charges was $60,412 (range $16,811-$84,792). The median for total charges associated with treatment was $109,917 (range $36,680-$231,895). Total billing for treatment was significantly associated with the year of diagnosis (p = 0.008), intensity-modulated radiation therapy versus wedge pair RT (p = 0.005), preradiation direct laryngoscopy (p < 0.0001), chemotherapy (p < 0.0001), gastrostomy tube placement (p = 0.004), and postradiation neck dissection (p = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

Although cost data for treatment are not readily available, historically, the recovery rate is approximately 30 %. The charges associated with definitive nonsurgical therapy for early-stage lateralized tonsil cancer have a wide range likely due to treatment-related procedures, the use of chemotherapy, and evolving RT technologies. These benchmark data are important given renewed interested in primary surgery for tonsil cancer. Cost of care, disease control, and functional outcomes will be critical for comparisons of effectiveness when selecting treatment modalities.

Economic analyses in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: a review of the literature from a clinical perspective

The purpose of this review was to describe cost-effectiveness and cost analysis studies across treatment modalities for squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN), while placing their results in context of the current clinical practice. We performed a literature search in PubMed for English-language studies addressing economic analyses of treatment modalities for SCCHN published from January 2000 to March 2013. We also performed an additional search for related studies published by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in the United Kingdom. Identified articles were classified into 3 clinical approaches (organ preservation, radiation therapy modalities, and chemotherapy regimens) and into 2 types of economic studies (cost analysis and cost-effectiveness/cost-utility studies). All cost estimates were normalized to US dollars, year 2013 values. Our search yielded 23 articles: 13 related to organ preservation approaches, 5 to radiation therapy modalities, and 5 to chemotherapy regimens. In general, studies analyzed different questions and modalities, making it difficult to reach a conclusion. Even when restricted to comparisons of modalities within the same clinical approach, studies often yielded conflicting findings. The heterogeneity across economic studies of SCCHN should be carefully understood in light of the modeling assumptions and limitations of each study and placed in context with relevant settings of clinical practices and study perspectives. Furthermore, the scarcity of comparative effectiveness and quality-of-life data poses unique challenges for conducting economic analyses for a resource-intensive disease, such as SCCHN, that requires a multimodal care. Future research is needed to better understand how to compare the costs and cost-effectiveness of different modalities for SCCHN.

Economic burden of non-cervical cancers attributable to human papillomavirus: a European scoping review

OBJECTIVE

Human papillomavirus (HPV) has an important role in the aetiology of a range of diseases, including cervical, other anogenital, and head and neck cancers, genital warts and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. This literature review was conducted to identify the available cost data for non-cervical HPV-related cancers (anal, penile, vulvar, vaginal, head and neck) in Europe and to inform discussion of methodological challenges for future economic research.

METHODS

The literature search was conducted using Medline and key words to identify papers published in English or French between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2011. Abstracts of major conferences were searched to identify relevant information. Structured methods were used to select references that focused on overall disease management for inclusion in the review.

RESULTS

A total of 21 references from seven countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, The Netherlands, Portugal, and the UK) were selected, including 11 references relating to head and neck cancers, five to anogenital cancers, and five to more than one HPV-related disease. Non-cervical cancers accounted for a substantial proportion of the economic burden of HPV-related cancers, and this burden was mainly driven by men (∼70%). A wide range of costs were reported for each disease, particularly head and neck cancers, predominantly due to disease complexity and variation in study design.

LIMITATIONS

The main limitation of this study was in the search strategy, which was constrained by the key words, the database searched, and the restriction on language (English/French).

CONCLUSIONS

Non-cervical cancers attributable to HPV impose a substantial economic burden in Europe, and the burden is greater in men than in women. This review provides useful information for future health-economic studies assessing the impact of HPV vaccination on all HPV-related diseases.

Economic burden of resected squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in a US managed-care population

BACKGROUND

Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) places a high burden on society and poses complex challenges to healthcare providers.

METHODS

Retrospective claims-based analysis of commercially insured patients identified between 01-31-04 and 12-31-07 with diagnostic evidence of cancer of the lip, tongue, oral cavity, pharynx, or larynx who underwent surgical resection during identification period. Outcomes included treatment patterns, healthcare utilization, and costs. All study variables were analyzed descriptively.

RESULTS

Among the 1104 patients in the final study sample, 71.9% were male, with mean age 56.6 years. On average, patients were followed for 830 days (range of mean days: 805 for lip or tongue cancer to 847 for pharyngeal cancer). About half received radiation therapy during follow-up, whereas only 16.2% received chemotherapy. Patients with pharyngeal cancer were most likely to undergo chemotherapy. After their index surgery, 57.9% of patients had ≥1 inpatient stay, 44.9% had ≥1 ER visit, and all had ≥1 ambulatory visit. The percentage with ≥1 inpatient stay post-index was highest among patients with pharyngeal cancer (73.0%) and lowest in the laryngeal cancer cohort (49.5%). Mean number of hospitalized days, ER visits, and ambulatory visits was 0.45, 0.69, and 27.4, respectively, per-patient per-year. Overall, patients incurred ~$94 million in cost following index surgery ($85,000 per-person, on average). Mean total healthcare cost was $34,450 per-patient per-year, the bulk of which comprised medical expenses ($32,401). The highest mean healthcare cost was incurred by the pharyngeal cancer cohort ($40,214).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with resected SCCHN incur substantial healthcare costs and have high utilization rates. Results of this analysis are primarily applicable to resected SCCHN in a managed-care setting, and therefore may not be generalizable to the entire US population. Furthermore, disease stage is an important factor impacting outcomes, but these analyses did not stratify patients according to disease stage.

A cost and benefit study of esophagectomy for patients with esophageal cancer

INTRODUCTION

The incidence of esophageal cancer is increasing all over the world but the cost-and-benefit of esophagectomy for esophageal cancer patients was rarely studied. The aim of this study is to compare the cost-and-benefit of esophagectomy in different stages of esophageal cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clinical and utilization data, including medical expenses and reason for treatment, of esophageal cancer patients were collected, summed and followed up for 5 years. The patients were divided into two groups according to their treatments, with or without esophagectomy. The monthly medical expense and relative expense performance index (REPI) were then calculated. Factors influenced total and monthly medical expense and survival time were further analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 310 esophageal cancer patients, 281 male and mean age of 64.3, were included in this study. One hundred forty-nine patients had undergone esophagectomy. The 5-year survival rate, total and monthly medical expense for two groups was 36.0% and 10.2% (p<0.001), USD $22,532.8 vs. 12,256.4 (p<0.001) and USD $2,101.65 vs. 2,033.94 (p=0.831), respectively. The REPIs in four different stages were 7.573, 2.422, 2.446 and 0.705. Both esophagectomy and tumor stage were the sole factors that could influence total and monthly medical expense respectively. Both esophagectomy and tumor stage could influence a patient's survival time.

CONCLUSIONS

Esophagectomy has better performance than non-esophagectomy for patients with stages I to III esophageal cancer. Therefore, adding economical considerations, esophagectomy is recommended for patients, at least earlier than stage III.

Longitudinal changes in quality of life and costs in long-term survivors of tumors of the oropharynx treated with brachytherapy or surgery

PURPOSE

Based on earlier studies we were interested in finding out if longitudinal assessment of quality of life (QoL) and costs in long-term survivors of oropharyngeal cancers treated with external beam radiation therapy and brachytherapy (BT) or surgery and postoperative radiotherapy showed a change in QoL over the years. Besides, we were curious to know how much the costs per life year and the QALY would be for this patient group.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Performance status scales: eating in public, understandability of speech, normalcy of diet, xerostomia and ability to swallow were determined in 2003 and 2005. In 2005, the responses to EORTC QLQ-C30, EORTC H&N35, and the Euroqol questionnaire were also measured. Costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were calculated.

RESULTS

Eating in public, understandability of speech, and normalcy of diet significantly differed in favor of BT. Surgical patients experienced more speech, teeth, and mouth-opening problems. Mean costs and QALYs for BT were 16,112 euros and 56,060 euros and for surgery 26,590 euros and 93,275 euros, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

QoL scores don't change over time. Due to the number of admission days, surgery is more costly. Difference in costs for QALYs in favor of BT was observed.

The economics of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The current review presents a brief overview of the recent literature on the costs of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN), one of the most common forms of cancer. SCCHN is a relatively deadly disease. Approximately 50% of patients survive to 5 years, and surgery and chemoradiotherapy can leave survivors with pain, disfigurement, and disability that further add to the burden of the disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

Earlier diagnosis of SCCHN increases the likelihood of treating with a single modality, lowers the risk of mortality, decreases medical expenditures, and improves patients' quality of life. Unfortunately, more than one-half of new cases of oral cancer are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Patients with SCCHN have been shown to use significantly more healthcare resources than similar patients without SCCHN, with resource use varying by cancer stage.

SUMMARY

Although there have been a number of treatment innovations for SCCHN in the past 5 years, the lack of economic data complicates the task of evaluating these new interventions. In this time of mounting concerns over healthcare costs, more emphasis on economic data is clearly warranted.

Interstitial radiation therapy for early-stage nasal vestibule cancer: a continuing quest for optimal tumor control and cosmesis

INTRODUCTION

This article reports on the effectiveness, cosmetic outcome, and costs of interstitial high-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy for early-stage cancer of the nasal vestibule (NV) proper and/or columella high-dose-rate (HDR).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Tumor control, survival, cosmetic outcome, functional results, and costs were established in 64 T1/T2N0 nasal vestibule cancers treated from 1991-2005 by fractionated interstitial radiation therapy (IRT) only. Total dose is 44 Gy: 2 fractions of 3 Gy per day, 6-hour interval, first and last fraction 4 Gy. Cosmesis is noted in the chart by the medical doctor during follow-up, by the patient (visual analog scale), and by a panel. Finally, full hospital costs are computed.

RESULTS

A local relapse-free survival rate of 92% at 5 years was obtained. Four local failures were observed; all four patients were salvaged. The neck was not treated electively; no neck recurrence in follow-up was seen. Excellent cosmetic and functional results were observed. With 10 days admission for full treatment, hospital costs amounted to euro5772 (7044 US dollars).

CONCLUSION

Excellent tumor control, cosmesis, and function of nasal airway passage can be achieved when HDR-IRT for T1/T2N0 NV cancers is used. For the more advanced cancers (Wang classification: T3 tumor stage), we elect to treat by local excision followed by a reconstructive procedure. The costs, admission to hospital inclusive, for treatment by HDR-IRT amounts to euro5772 (7044 US dollars). This contrasts substantially with the full hospital costs when NV cancers are treated by plastic reconstructive surgery, being on average threefold as expensive.

Cancer in the oropharynx: cost calculation of different treatment modalities for controlled primaries, relapses and grade III/IV complications

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

This paper presents a model for cost calculation using the different treatment modalities for oropharyngeal (OPh) cancers used in our hospital. We compared full hospital costs, the associated costs of localregional relapses (LRR) and/or treatment related grade III/IV complications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients with OPh cancer are treated in the Erasmus MC preferably by an organ function preservation protocol. That is, by external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) followed by a brachytherapy (BT) boost, and neck dissection in case of N+ disease (BT-group: 157 patients). If BT is not feasible, resection with postoperative EBRT (S-group [S=Surgery]: 110 patients) or EBRT-alone (EBRT-group: 77 patients) is being pursued. Actuarial localregional control (LRC), disease free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) at 5-years were calculated according to the Kaplan-Meier method. The mean costs per treatment group for diagnosis, primary Tx per se, follow-up, (salvage of) locoregional relapse (LRR), distant metastasis (DM), and/or grade III/IV complications needing clinical admission, were computed.

RESULTS

For the BT-, S-, or EBRT treatment groups, LRC rates at 5-years were 85, 82, and 55%, for the DFS, 61, 48, and 43%, and for the OS 65, 52, and 40%, respectively. The mean costs of primary Tx in case of the BT-group is 13,466; for the S-group 24,219, and 12,502 for the EBRT-group. The mean costs of S (the main salvage modality) for a LRR of the BT group or EBRT-group, were 17,861 and 15,887, respectively. The mean costs of clinical management of Grade III/IV complications were 7184 (BT-group), 16,675 (S-group) and 6437 (EBRT-group).

CONCLUSION

The clinical outcome illustrates excellent LRC rates at 5-years for BT (85%), as well as for S (82%). The relatively low 55% LRC rate at 5-years for EBRT probably reflects a negative selection of patients. It is of interest that the total mean costs of patients alive with no evidence of disease is least for the BT-group: 15,101 as opposed to 25,288 (S) and 18,674 (EBRT). Main underlying cause for the high costs with S as opposed to RT alone is the number of associated clinical admission days, not only during primary treatment, but also at relapse. This might be taken into consideration when treating these patients.

Costs of treatment intensification for head and neck cancer: Concomitant chemoradiation randomised for radioprotection with amifostine

This study presents an overview of costs of a chemoradiation protocol in head and neck cancer patients and an analysis of whether prevention of acute toxicity with amifostine results in a reduction to costs. Fifty-four patients treated with weekly paclitaxel concomitant with radiation were randomised for treatment with subcutaneously administered amifostine (500 mg) and analysed with respect to costs of treatment. Total costs for work-up, treatment and toxicity were calculated per treatment arm. No significant differences were found between treatment arms in preliminary results regarding response (98%), toxicity and 2-year survival (77%). Average costs for toxicity were Euro 3.789, largely influenced by hospital admissions (Euro 3.013). Total costs for amifostine administration amounted to Euro 6.495 per patient. The average total costs of treatment were Euro 19.647 versus Euro 13.592 with or without amifostine, respectively. The applied (subcutaneous) dose of amifostine appeared to be insufficient for radioprotection and reduction of related costs in the concomitant chemoradiation scheme, whereas total costs increased remarkably. Although it would be accompanied by a further cost raise, applying a higher amifostine dose might reduce (mucosal) toxicity and therefore in the long run lower related costs for hospital admission and tube feeding.

Brachytherapy versus surgery in carcinoma of tonsillar fossa and/or soft palate: late adverse sequelae and performance status: can we be more selective and obtain better tissue sparing?

PURPOSE

To report on the tumor control, adverse late normal tissue sequelae, and functional performance in patients with tonsillar fossa and/or soft palate (SP) tumors. The aim of the study is to validate the use of a more selective clinical target volume in conjunction with highly conformal radiotherapy (RT) techniques to better spare the surrounding normal tissues.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Between 1986 and 2001, T1-T3 tonsillar fossa/SP tumors were treated in the Erasmus Medical Center using external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) to 46 Gy in 2-Gy fractions to the primary tumor and neck, followed by brachytherapy (BT) to the primary. Neck dissection was performed for node-positive disease (BT group; 104 patients). If BT was not feasible, patients underwent surgery and postoperative RT (PORT) to a dose of 50-70 Gy in 2-Gy fractions (surgery group; 86 patients). Local control, regional control, disease-free survival, and overall survival were determined. Late side effects were scored using the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group criteria. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed for regional failure (RF), with the parameters gender, age, site, TN stage, modality, dose, and overall treatment time. Recurrences in the contralateral neck were also related to significant ipsilateral involvement of the base of tongue and/or involvement of the SP crossing the midline. To determine the performance status scale scores and degree of xerostomia, a survey was conducted among patients living with no evidence of disease and a minimum of 2 years of follow-up. For that purpose, a research nurse interviewed patients regarding eating in public, normalcy of diet, normalcy of speech, and xerostomia.

RESULTS

The tumor control rates after BT vs. surgery at 5 years were 88% vs. 88% for local control; 93% vs. 85% for regional control; 57% vs. 52% for disease-free survival; 67% vs. 57% for overall survival; and 5% vs. 6% for RF. No patient had RF in the contralateral untreated N0 neck (0 of 14 vs. 0 of 15). Multivariate Cox regression analysis for RF was statistically significant for Stage T2 vs. T3 (hazard ratio 0.09) and for the dose to the neck >46 Gy (hazard ratio, 8.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.3-57.1). The significant late side effects in the BT group vs. surgery group were ulcer in 39% vs. 7% (p = 0.001) and trismus in 1% vs. 21% (p = 0.005). The performance status scale scores and response to questions regarding xerostomia for BT vs. surgery revealed no statistically significant differences for eating in public, normalcy of diet, normalcy of speech, and xerostomia. The mean visual analog score for xerostomia was 5.5 in the BT group vs. 6 in the surgery group.

CONCLUSION

Excellent locoregional control was obtained in T1-T3 tonsillar fossa and/or SP tumors. The rate at 10 years was 84% (BT group) vs. 78% (surgery group). However, adverse late side effects were not negligible. In addition to modality-specific side effects (ulcer/trismus), both treatment groups were significantly affected by xerostomia. Only 6 recurrences (4%) were observed in the 149 electively treated contralateral necks, and no relapses were seen in the 29 untreated contralateral necks. We, therefore, suggest that it is not necessary to treat the contralateral neck, unless the tumor extends beyond the midline of the soft palate (uvula) or beyond the lateral one-third of the ipsilateral base of the tongue. Moreover, with the currently available CT-based neck level definitions, more conformal contours (i.e., tighter boundaries) around the clinical target volume can be designed. In this way, critical structures such as the temporomandibular joint and part of the pterygoid muscles can be avoided more easily. Also, when using highly conformal treatment techniques (e.g., intensity-modulated RT), one can further reduce the dose to the major salivary glands and oral mucosa. We believe these measures will lead to less trismus and less xerostomia.