1
|
Why current quantitative serology is not quantitative and how systems immunology could provide solutions. Biol Futur 2021; 72:37-44. [PMID: 34554503 PMCID: PMC7896550 DOI: 10.1007/s42977-020-00061-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Determination of the presence of antibodies against infectious agents, self-antigens, allogeneic antigens and environmental antigens is the goal of medical serology. Along with the standardization of these tests the community also started to use the expression “quantitative serology,” referring to the fact that arbitrary units are used for the expression of results. In this review I will argue against the use of the term quantitative serology for current tests. Because each test and each antibody isotype determination uses its own references, the term semiquantitative better describes these methods. The introduction of really quantitative serology could both benefit from and drive forward systems immunological approach to immunity.
Collapse
|
2
|
Itakura J, Sato M, Ito T, Mino M, Fushimi S, Takahashi S, Yoshimura T, Matsukawa A. Spred2-deficiecy Protects Mice from Polymicrobial Septic Peritonitis by Enhancing Inflammation and Bacterial Clearance. Sci Rep 2017; 7:12833. [PMID: 28993690 PMCID: PMC5634500 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13204-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is an infection-induced systemic inflammatory syndrome and a major cause of death for critically ill patients. Here, we examined whether the absence of Sprouty-related EVH1-domain-containing protein 2 (Spred2), a negative regulator of the Ras/Raf/ERK/MAPK pathway, influences host defense against polymicrobial sepsis (PMS) induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Compared to wild-type mice, Spred2−/− mice exhibited higher survival rates with increased level of leukocyte infiltration and local chemokine production and reduced plasma and peritoneal bacterial loads after CLP. The MEK inhibitor U0126 significantly reduced LPS-induced chemokine production by Spred2−/− resident macrophages in vitro, and decreased CLP-induced leukocyte infiltration in vivo. Spred2−/− resident macrophages, but not neutrophils or elicited macrophages, exhibited increased phagocytic activity. Interestingly, surface expression of complement receptor 1/2 (CR1/2) was increased in Spred2−/− resident macrophages in response to lipopolysaccharide in a manner dependent on the ERK/MAPK pathway, and blocking CR1/2 in vivo resulted in reduced leukocyte infiltration and increased bacterial loads after CLP. Taken together, our results indicate that Spred2-deficiency protects mice from PMS via increased activation of the ERK/MAPK pathway and subsequent increase in innate immune responses. Thus, inhibiting Spred2 may present a novel means to prevent the development of PMS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junya Itakura
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Miwa Sato
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Ito
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan.,Department of Immunology, Nara Medical University, Nara, 634-8521, Japan
| | - Megumi Mino
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Soichiro Fushimi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Sakuma Takahashi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Teizo Yoshimura
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Akihiro Matsukawa
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Platt JL, Silva I, Balin SJ, Lefferts AR, Farkash E, Ross TM, Carroll MC, Cascalho M. C3d regulates immune checkpoint blockade and enhances antitumor immunity. JCI Insight 2017; 2:90201. [PMID: 28469081 PMCID: PMC5414554 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.90201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite expression of immunogenic polypeptides, tumors escape immune surveillance by engaging T cell checkpoint regulators and expanding Tregs, among other mechanisms. What orchestrates these controls is unknown. We report that free C3d, a fragment of the third component of complement, inside tumor cells - or associated with irradiated tumor cells and unattached to antigen - recruits, accelerates, and amplifies antitumor T cell responses, allowing immunity to reverse or even to prevent tumor growth. C3d enhances antitumor immunity independently of B cells, NK cells, or antibodies, but it does so by increasing tumor infiltrating CD8+ lymphocytes, by depleting Tregs, and by suppressing expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) by T cells. These properties of C3d appear specific for the tumor and dependent on complement receptor 2, and they incur no obvious systemic toxicity. The heretofore unrecognized properties of free C3d suggest that protein might determine the effectiveness of immune surveillance and that increasing availability of the protein might prove advantageous in the treatment or prevention of cancer and premalignant conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Inês Silva
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Samuel J Balin
- Department of Dermatology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Adam R Lefferts
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Evan Farkash
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Ted M Ross
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Michael C Carroll
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate Program in Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mizuno M, Suzuki Y, Ito Y. Complement regulation and kidney diseases: recent knowledge of the double-edged roles of complement activation in nephrology. Clin Exp Nephrol 2017; 22:3-14. [DOI: 10.1007/s10157-017-1405-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
5
|
Prieto JMB, Tallmadge RL, Felippe MJB. Developmental expression of B cell molecules in equine lymphoid tissues. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2016; 183:60-71. [PMID: 28063478 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Identification and classification of B cell subpopulations has been shown to be challenging and inconsistent among different species. Our study tested aspects of ontogeny, phenotype, tissue distribution, and function of equine CD5hi B cells, which represented a greater proportion of B cells early in development and in the peritoneal cavity. CD5hi and CD5lo B cells differentially expressed B cell markers (CD2, CD21, IgM) measured using flow cytometry, but similar mRNA expression of signature genes (DGKA, FGL2, PAX5, IGHM, IL10) measured using quantitative RT-PCR. Sequencing lambda light chain segments revealed that CD5hi B cells generated diverse immunoglobulin repertoires, and more frequently bound to fluorescence-labeled phosphorylcholine. This study shows developmental characteristics and tissue distribution of a newly described subpopulation of B cells in the horse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J M B Prieto
- Equine Immunology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - R L Tallmadge
- Equine Immunology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - M J B Felippe
- Equine Immunology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kulik L, Hewitt FB, Willis VC, Rodriguez R, Tomlinson S, Holers VM. A new mouse anti-mouse complement receptor type 2 and 1 (CR2/CR1) monoclonal antibody as a tool to study receptor involvement in chronic models of immune responses and disease. Mol Immunol 2015; 63:479-88. [PMID: 25457881 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2014.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Although reagents are available to block mouse complement receptor type 2 and/or type 1 (CR2/CR1, CD21/CD35) function in acute or short term models of human disease, a mouse anti-rat antibody response limits their use in chronic models. We have addressed this problem by generating in Cr2−/− mice a mouse monoclonal antibody (mAb 4B2) to mouse CR2/CR1. The binding of murine mAb 4B2 to CR2/CR1 directly blocked C3dg (C3d) ligand binding. In vivo injection of mAb 4B2 induced substantial down regulation of CR2 and CR1 from the B cell surface, an effect that lasted six weeks after a single injection of 2 mg of mAb. The 4B2 mAb was studied in vivo for the capability to affect immunological responses to model antigens. Pre-injection of mAb 4B2 before immunization of C57BL/6 mice reduced the IgG1 antibody response to the T-dependent antigen sheep red blood cells (SRBC) to a level comparable to that found in Cr2−/− mice. We also used the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model, a CR2/CR1-dependent autoimmune disease model, and found that mice pre-injected with mAb 4B2 demonstrated substantially reduced levels of pathogenic IgG2a antibodies to both the bovine type II collagen (CII) used to induce arthritis and to endogenous mouse CII. Consistent with this result, mice pre-injected with mAb 4B2 demonstrated only very mild arthritis. This reduction in disease, together with published data in CII-immunized Cr2−/− mice, confirm both that the arthritis development depends on CR2/CR1 receptors and that mAb 4B2 can be used to induce biologically relevant receptor blockade. Thus mAb 4B2 is an excellent candidate for use in chronic murine models to determine how receptor blockage at different points modifies disease activity and autoantibody responses.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/administration & dosage
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Antibody Specificity/immunology
- Antigens/immunology
- Antigens, CD19/metabolism
- Arthritis, Experimental/blood
- Arthritis, Experimental/immunology
- Arthritis, Experimental/pathology
- Autoantibodies/blood
- B-Lymphocytes/cytology
- B-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- Cattle
- Cell Death/drug effects
- Chronic Disease
- Disease Models, Animal
- Down-Regulation/drug effects
- Erythrocytes/drug effects
- Erythrocytes/immunology
- Female
- Immune System Diseases/immunology
- Immunity, Humoral/drug effects
- Immunity, Innate/drug effects
- Immunoglobulin D/metabolism
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Rats
- Receptors, Complement 3b/immunology
- Receptors, Complement 3d/immunology
- Sheep
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liudmila Kulik
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Haynes T, Luz-Madrigal A, Reis ES, Echeverri Ruiz NP, Grajales-Esquivel E, Tzekou A, Tsonis PA, Lambris JD, Del Rio-Tsonis K. Complement anaphylatoxin C3a is a potent inducer of embryonic chick retina regeneration. Nat Commun 2013; 4:2312. [PMID: 23942241 PMCID: PMC3753547 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying the initiation signals for tissue regeneration in vertebrates is one of the major challenges in regenerative biology. Much of the research thus far has indicated that certain growth factors have key roles. Here we show that complement fragment C3a is sufficient to induce complete regeneration of the embryonic chick retina from stem/progenitor cells present in the eye, independent of fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling. Instead, C3a induces retina regeneration via STAT3 activation, which in turn activates the injury- and inflammation-responsive factors, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α. This activation sets forth regulation of Wnt2b, Six3 and Sox2, genes associated with retina stem and progenitor cells. Thus, our results establish a mechanism for retina regeneration based on injury and inflammation signals. Furthermore, our results indicate a unique function for complement anaphylatoxins that implicate these molecules in the induction and complete regeneration of the retina, opening new avenues of experimentation in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Haynes
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
| | - Agustin Luz-Madrigal
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Dayton and Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at the University of Dayton (TREND), Dayton, Ohio 45469, USA
| | - Edimara S. Reis
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Nancy P. Echeverri Ruiz
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
| | - Erika Grajales-Esquivel
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
| | - Apostolia Tzekou
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Panagiotis A. Tsonis
- Department of Biology, University of Dayton and Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at the University of Dayton (TREND), Dayton, Ohio 45469, USA
| | - John D. Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Katia Del Rio-Tsonis
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
The increased expression of CD21 on AchR specified B cells in patients with myasthenia gravis. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 256:49-54. [PMID: 23266128 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
CD21, a major complement receptor expressed on B cells, is associated with autoimmune disorders. In the present study, we investigated the role of CD21 in pathogenesis of myasthenia gravis (MG) in relationship to anti-acetylcholine receptor (AchR) IgG (anti-AchR IgG) secretion. We detected increased surface expression of CD21 on AchR specified B cells as well as decreased surface expression of CD21 on total B cells in peripheral blood of patients with generalized MG (gMG). In addition, the serum concentrations of soluble secreted CD21 (sCD21) were decreased in patients with gMG. We also found that the level of CD21(+) AchR specified B cells correlated positively with serum anti-AchR IgG level, while the serum concentration of soluble CD21 correlated negatively with serum anti-AchR IgG level. Our data suggests that CD21 might facilitate its function on AchR specified B cell activation, resulting in the secretion of anti-AchR IgG.
Collapse
|
9
|
Vaccination of neonates: Problem and issues. Vaccine 2012; 30:1541-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
10
|
Human complement receptor type 2 (CR2/CD21) transgenic mice provide an in vivo model to study immunoregulatory effects of receptor antagonists. Mol Immunol 2011; 48:883-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2010.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Revised: 12/16/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
11
|
Schlosser RJ, Mulligan RM, Casey SE, Varela JC, Harvey RJ, Atkinson C. Alterations in gene expression of complement components in chronic rhinosinusitis. Am J Rhinol Allergy 2010; 24:21-5. [PMID: 20109314 DOI: 10.2500/ajra.2010.24.3399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The complement cascade forms part of the initial innate response to pathogens in the airway. Complement activation is important in the maintenance of host homeostasis, but excessive and uncontrolled activation may lead to inflammation and disease. The role of the complement pathway in the innate response in chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is poorly characterized Methods: Sinus mucosa biopsy specimens from the anterior ethmoid or uncinate process of patients with allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS), CRS without NPs (CRS-NPs), and controls were harvested and gene and protein expression of C3, factor B (fB), C5, and C7 complement proteins were analyzed using quantitative polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical techniques. RESULTS fB, C3, and C5 gene expression were increased in both AFRS and CRS-NPs compared with controls (p < 0.05). Transcriptional activity for the terminal pathway protein C7 was not significantly increased when compared with controls, with C7 levels actually reduced in AFRS patients when compared with controls. Immunohistochemistry studies showed the presence of C3 and fB on the mucosal surface and in submucosa of both AFRS and CRS-NPs, but not normal controls. Terminal pathway protein C9 was not found in our specimens. CONCLUSION Both AFRS and CRS-NPs display up-regulation of the complement pathway, in particular, the alternative pathway (fB) and common pathways (C3 and C5). Enhanced innate responses as shown by alterations in complement components may play a pivotal role in the inflammatory response noted in CRS and provide potential therapeutic targets in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rodney J Schlosser
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Depletion of the C3 component of complement enhances the ability of rituximab-coated target cells to activate human NK cells and improves the efficacy of monoclonal antibody therapy in an in vivo model. Blood 2009; 114:5322-30. [PMID: 19805620 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2009-01-200469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence indicates antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) contributes to the clinical response to monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapy of lymphoma. Recent in vitro analysis suggests C3b can inhibit mAb-induced natural killer (NK)-cell activation and ADCC. Further studies were conducted to assess the effect of C3 depletion on mAb-induced NK activation and therapy of lymphoma. Normal human serum inhibited the ability of rituximab-coated lymphoma cells to activate NK cells as previously reported. Serum did not inhibit NK-cell activation when it was preincubated with cobra venom factor (CVF) to deplete C3. Similar results were found when transudative pleural fluid or nonmalignant ascites was used as surrogates for extravascular fluid, suggesting the inhibitory effect of complement may be present in the extravascular compartment, in which many malignant lymphocytes reside. In vivo, C3 was depleted before mAb treatment in a syngeneic murine model of lymphoma. Survival of lymphoma-bearing mice after treatment with CVF plus mAb and with a human C3 derivative with CVF-like functions (HC3-1496) plus mAb was both superior to that of mAb alone. These studies show that complement depletion enhances NK-cell activation induced by rituximab-coated target cells and improves the efficacy of mAb therapy in a murine lymphoma model.
Collapse
|
13
|
Erdei A, Isaák A, Török K, Sándor N, Kremlitzka M, Prechl J, Bajtay Z. Expression and role of CR1 and CR2 on B and T lymphocytes under physiological and autoimmune conditions. Mol Immunol 2009; 46:2767-73. [PMID: 19559484 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2009.05.181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2009] [Accepted: 05/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The involvement of complement in the development and regulation of antibody responses under both healthy and pathological conditions is known for long. Unravelling the molecular mechanisms underlying the events however is still in progress. This review focuses on the role of complement receptors CR1 (CD35) and CR2 (CD21) expressed on T and B cells. Alteration in the expression and function of these receptors may contribute to the initiation and maintenance of immune complex mediated autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Recent data regarding complement receptor expression on T lymphocytes and on memory B cells are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Erdei
- Department of Immunology, Biological Institute, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|