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Jiang M, Liu M, Liu G, Ma J, Zhang L, Wang S. Advances in the structural characterization of complexes of therapeutic antibodies with PD-1 or PD-L1. MAbs 2023; 15:2236740. [PMID: 37530414 PMCID: PMC10399482 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2023.2236740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibody-based immune checkpoint blockade (ICB)-based therapeutics have become effective clinical applications for cancers. Applications of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to de-activate the PD-1-PD-L1 pathway could effectively reverse the phenotype of depleted activated thymocytes (T cells) to recover their anti-tumoral activities. High-resolution structures of the complexes of the therapeutic monoclonal antibodies with PD-1 or PD-L1 have revealed the key inter-molecular interactions and provided valuable insights into the fundamental mechanisms by which these antibodies inhibit PD-L1-PD-1 binding. Each anti-PD-1 mAb exhibits a unique blockade mechanism, such as interference with large PD-1-PD-L1 contacting interfaces, steric hindrance by overlapping a small area of this site, or binding to an N-glycosylated site. In contrast, all therapeutic anti-PD-L1 mAbs bind to a similar area of PD-L1. Here, we summarized advances in the structural characterization of the complexes of commercial mAbs that target PD-1 or PD-L1. In particular, we focus on the unique characteristics of those mAb structures, epitopes, and blockade mechanisms. It is well known that the use of antibodies as anti-tumor drugs has increased recently and both PD-1 and PD-L1 have attracted substantial attention as target for antibodies derived from new technologies. By focusing on structural characterization, this review aims to aid the development of novel antibodies targeting PD-1 or PD-L1 in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengzhen Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Man Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Guodi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiawen Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Lixin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Shenlin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
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Khatib SE, Salla M. The mosaic puzzle of the therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antibody fragments - A modular transition from full-length immunoglobulins to antibody mimetics. Leuk Res Rep 2022; 18:100335. [PMID: 35832747 PMCID: PMC9272380 DOI: 10.1016/j.lrr.2022.100335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of monoclonal antibodies represents an important and efficient diagnostic and therapeutic tool in disease management and modern science but remains limited by several factors including the uneven distribution in diseased tissues as well as undesired activation of side immune reactions. Major scientific advancements including Recombinant DNA Technology, Hybridoma Technology, and Polymerase Chain Reaction have considerably impacted the use of monoclonal antibodies providing technical and effective solutions to overcome the shortcomings encountered with conventional antibodies. Initially, the introduction of antibody fragments allowed a more uniform and deeper penetration of the targeted tissue and reduced unwanted activation of Fc-mediated immune reactions. On another level, the immunogenicity of murine-derived antibodies was overcome by humanizing their encoding genes with specific sequences of human origin andtransgenic mice able to synthesize fully human antibodies were successfully created. Moreover, the advancement of genetic engineering techniques supported by the modular structure of antibody coding genes paved the way for the development of a new generation of antibody fragments with a wide spectrum of monospecific and bispecific agents. These later could be monovalent, bivalent, or multivalent, and either expressed as a single chain, assembled in multimeric forms or stringed in tandem. This has conferred improved affinity, stability, and solubility to antibody targetting. Lately, a new array of monoclonal antibody fragments was introduced with the engineering of nanobody and antibody mimetics as non-immunoglobulin-derived fragments with promising diagnostic and therapeutic applications. In this review, we decipher the molecular basis of monoclonal antibody engineering with a detailed screening of the antibody derivatives that provides new perspectives to expand the use of monoclonal fragments into previously unexplored fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami El Khatib
- Lebanese International University, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Bekaa Campus, Khiyara, West Bekaa, Lebanon
| | - Mohamed Salla
- University of Alberta. Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry,116St & 85 Ave, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
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3
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Process- and Product-Related Foulants in Virus Filtration. Bioengineering (Basel) 2022; 9:bioengineering9040155. [PMID: 35447715 PMCID: PMC9030149 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering9040155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory authorities place stringent guidelines on the removal of contaminants during the manufacture of biopharmaceutical products. Monoclonal antibodies, Fc-fusion proteins, and other mammalian cell-derived biotherapeutics are heterogeneous molecules that are validated based on the production process and not on molecular homogeneity. Validation of clearance of potential contamination by viruses is a major challenge during the downstream purification of these therapeutics. Virus filtration is a single-use, size-based separation process in which the contaminating virus particles are retained while the therapeutic molecules pass through the membrane pores. Virus filtration is routinely used as part of the overall virus clearance strategy. Compromised performance of virus filters due to membrane fouling, low throughput and reduced viral clearance, is of considerable industrial significance and is frequently a major challenge. This review shows how components generated during cell culture, contaminants, and product variants can affect virus filtration of mammalian cell-derived biologics. Cell culture-derived foulants include host cell proteins, proteases, and endotoxins. We also provide mitigation measures for each potential foulant.
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Hasipek M, Grabowski D, Guan Y, Alugubelli RR, Tiwari AD, Gu X, DeAvila GA, Silva AS, Meads MB, Parker Y, Lindner DJ, Saunthararajah Y, Shain KH, Maciejewski JP, Reu FJ, Phillips JG, Jha BK. Therapeutic Targeting of Protein Disulfide Isomerase PDIA1 in Multiple Myeloma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13112649. [PMID: 34071205 PMCID: PMC8198550 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13112649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma is a genetically complex hematologic neoplasia in which malignant plasma cells constantly operate at the maximum limit of their unfolded protein response (UPR) due to a high secretory burden of immunoglobulins and cytokines. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident protein disulfide isomerase, PDIA1 is indispensable for maintaining structural integrity of cysteine-rich antibodies and cytokines that require accurate intramolecular disulfide bond arrangement. PDIA1 expression analysis from RNA-seq of multiple myeloma patients demonstrated an inverse relationship with survival in relapsed or refractory disease, supporting its critical role in myeloma persistence. Using a structure-guided medicinal chemistry approach, we developed a potent, orally bioavailable small molecule PDIA1 inhibitor CCF642-34. The inhibition of PDIA1 overwhelms the UPR in myeloma cells, resulting in their apoptotic cell death at doses that do not affect the normal CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Bortezomib resistance leads to increased PDIA1 expression and thus CCF642-34 sensitivity, suggesting that proteasome inhibitor resistance leads to PDIA1 dependence for proteostasis and survival. CCF642-34 induces acute unresolvable UPR in myeloma cells, and oral treatment increased survival of mice in the syngeneic 5TGM1 model of myeloma. Results support development of CCF642-34 to selectively target the plasma cell program and overcome the treatment-refractory state in myeloma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Metis Hasipek
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Dale Grabowski
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Yihong Guan
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Raghunandan Reddy Alugubelli
- Department of Malignant Hematology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (R.R.A.); (G.A.D.); (K.H.S.); (F.J.R.)
| | - Anand D. Tiwari
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Xiaorong Gu
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Gabriel A. DeAvila
- Department of Malignant Hematology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (R.R.A.); (G.A.D.); (K.H.S.); (F.J.R.)
| | - Ariosto S. Silva
- Department of Cancer Physiology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.S.S.); (M.B.M.)
| | - Mark B. Meads
- Department of Cancer Physiology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (A.S.S.); (M.B.M.)
| | - Yvonne Parker
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Daniel J. Lindner
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Yogen Saunthararajah
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
- Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Kenneth H. Shain
- Department of Malignant Hematology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (R.R.A.); (G.A.D.); (K.H.S.); (F.J.R.)
| | - Jaroslaw P. Maciejewski
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
- Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Frederic J. Reu
- Department of Malignant Hematology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (R.R.A.); (G.A.D.); (K.H.S.); (F.J.R.)
| | - James G. Phillips
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
| | - Babal K. Jha
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (M.H.); (D.G.); (Y.G.); (A.D.T.); (X.G.); (Y.P.); (D.J.L.); (Y.S.); (J.P.M.); (J.G.P.)
- Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-216-444-6739
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Sivaccumar J, Sandomenico A, Vitagliano L, Ruvo M. Monoclonal Antibodies: A Prospective and Retrospective View. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:435-471. [PMID: 32072887 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327666200219142231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monoclonal Antibodies (mAbs) represent one of the most important classes of biotherapeutic agents. They are used to cure many diseases, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, angiogenesis-related diseases and, more recently also haemophilia. They can be highly varied in terms of format, source, and specificity to improve efficacy and to obtain more targeted applications. This can be achieved by leaving substantially unchanged the basic structural components for paratope clustering. OBJECTIVES The objective was to trace the most relevant findings that have deserved prestigious awards over the years, to report the most important clinical applications and to emphasize their latest emerging therapeutic trends. RESULTS We report the most relevant milestones and new technologies adopted for antibody development. Recent efforts in generating new engineered antibody-based formats are briefly reviewed. The most important antibody-based molecules that are (or are going to be) used for pharmacological practice have been collected in useful tables. CONCLUSION The topics here discussed prove the undisputed role of mAbs as innovative biopharmaceuticals molecules and as vital components of targeted pharmacological therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jwala Sivaccumar
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Annamaria Sandomenico
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Luigi Vitagliano
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Menotti Ruvo
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
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6
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Abstract
Aptamers are synthetic DNA or RNA oligonucleotide ligands with great potential for therapeutic applications. A vast number of disease-related targets have been used to identify agonistic, antagonistic, or inhibitory aptamers, or aptamer-based targeting ligands. However, only a few aptamers have reached late-stage clinical trials so far and the commercial infrastructure is still far behind that of other therapeutic agents such as monoclonal antibodies. The desirable properties of aptamers such as selectivity, chemical flexibility, or cost-efficiency are faced by challenges, including a short half-life in vivo, immunogenicity, and entrapment in cellular organelles. Aptamer research is still in an early stage, and a deeper understanding of their structure, target interactions, and pharmacokinetics is necessary to catch up to the clinical market. In this review, we will discuss the benefits and limitations in the development of therapeutic aptamers, as well as the advances and future directions of aptamer research. The progress towards effective therapies seems to be slow, but it has not stopped and the best is yet to come.
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7
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Brämer C, Tünnermann L, Gonzalez Salcedo A, Reif OW, Solle D, Scheper T, Beutel S. Membrane Adsorber for the Fast Purification of a Monoclonal Antibody Using Protein A Chromatography. MEMBRANES 2019; 9:E159. [PMID: 31783640 PMCID: PMC6950724 DOI: 10.3390/membranes9120159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies are conquering the biopharmaceutical market because they can be used to treat a variety of diseases. Therefore, it is very important to establish robust and optimized processes for their production. In this article, the first step of chromatography (Protein A chromatography) in monoclonal antibody purification was optimized with a focus on the critical elution step. Therefore, different buffers (citrate, glycine, acetate) were tested for chromatographic performance and product quality. Membrane chromatography was evaluated because it promises high throughputs and short cycle times. The membrane adsorber Sartobind® Protein A 2 mL was used to accelerate the purification procedure and was further used to perform a continuous chromatographic run with a four-membrane adsorber-periodic counter-current chromatography (4MA-PCCC) system. It was found that citrate buffer at pH 3.5 and 0.15 M NaCl enabled the highest recovery of >95% and lowest total aggregate content of 0.26%. In the continuous process, the capacity utilization of the membrane adsorber was increased by 20%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Brämer
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany (L.T.); (A.G.S.); (D.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Lisa Tünnermann
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany (L.T.); (A.G.S.); (D.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Alina Gonzalez Salcedo
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany (L.T.); (A.G.S.); (D.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Oscar-Werner Reif
- Sartorius Stedim Biotech, August-Spindler-Straße 11, 37079 Göttingen, Germany;
| | - Dörte Solle
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany (L.T.); (A.G.S.); (D.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Thomas Scheper
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany (L.T.); (A.G.S.); (D.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Sascha Beutel
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany (L.T.); (A.G.S.); (D.S.); (T.S.)
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8
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Stahnisch FW, Pow S, Hunt BW. Gerald M. Edelman (1929–2014). J Neurol 2019; 266:1552-1554. [DOI: 10.1007/s00415-018-9067-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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9
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Dhar SK, Das M. Engineering Antibodies. J Indian Inst Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s41745-018-0061-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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Papageorgiou L, Vlachakis D. Antisoma Application: A Fully Integrated V-Like Antibodies Platform. AIMS MEDICAL SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.3934/medsci.2017.4.382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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11
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Vatolin S, Phillips JG, Jha BK, Govindgari S, Hu J, Grabowski D, Parker Y, Lindner DJ, Zhong F, Distelhorst CW, Smith MR, Cotta C, Xu Y, Chilakala S, Kuang RR, Tall S, Reu FJ. Novel Protein Disulfide Isomerase Inhibitor with Anticancer Activity in Multiple Myeloma. Cancer Res 2016; 76:3340-50. [PMID: 27197150 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-15-3099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Multiple myeloma cells secrete more disulfide bond-rich proteins than any other mammalian cell. Thus, inhibition of protein disulfide isomerases (PDI) required for protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) should increase ER stress beyond repair in this incurable cancer. Here, we report the mechanistically unbiased discovery of a novel PDI-inhibiting compound with antimyeloma activity. We screened a 30,355 small-molecule library using a multilayered multiple myeloma cell-based cytotoxicity assay that modeled disease niche, normal liver, kidney, and bone marrow. CCF642, a bone marrow-sparing compound, exhibited a submicromolar IC50 in 10 of 10 multiple myeloma cell lines. An active biotinylated analog of CCF642 defined binding to the PDI isoenzymes A1, A3, and A4 in MM cells. In vitro, CCF642 inhibited PDI reductase activity about 100-fold more potently than the structurally distinct established inhibitors PACMA 31 and LOC14. Computational modeling suggested a novel covalent binding mode in active-site CGHCK motifs. Remarkably, without any further chemistry optimization, CCF642 displayed potent efficacy in an aggressive syngeneic mouse model of multiple myeloma and prolonged the lifespan of C57BL/KaLwRij mice engrafted with 5TGM1-luc myeloma, an effect comparable to the first-line multiple myeloma therapeutic bortezomib. Consistent with PDI inhibition, CCF642 caused acute ER stress in multiple myeloma cells accompanied by apoptosis-inducing calcium release. Overall, our results provide an illustration of the utility of simple in vivo simulations as part of a drug discovery effort, along with a sound preclinical rationale to develop a new small-molecule therapeutic to treat multiple myeloma. Cancer Res; 76(11); 3340-50. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Vatolin
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - James G Phillips
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Babal K Jha
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | | | - Jennifer Hu
- Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Dale Grabowski
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Yvonne Parker
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Daniel J Lindner
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio. Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Fei Zhong
- Division of Hematology & Oncology, University Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Clark W Distelhorst
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Division of Hematology & Oncology, University Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Mitchell R Smith
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Department of Hematology & Medical Oncology, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Claudiu Cotta
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Yan Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Sujatha Chilakala
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | | | | | - Frederic J Reu
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio. Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Department of Hematology & Medical Oncology, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.
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