The Moro reaction: More than a reflex, a ritualized behavior of nonverbal communication

Persistence and activity levels of primitive reflexes in young high-level football players

Introduction

Primitive reflexes (PR) induce involuntary automatic movements in response to specific stimuli. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of active PR in young high-level football players.

Methodology

Sixty-nine national-level football players from a French academy were tested (17.0 ± 1.4 years; 69.6 ± 8.0 kg; 178.9 ± 6.9 cm) to evaluate the persistence of PR, following the methodology of the Institute for Neuro-Physiological Psychology (INPP) and the classification by a global score (GS). Based on the sum of seven tests, each was rated between 0 = null and 4 = max. The GS is classified into five categories from no activity to maximal (0-1 = no activity, 2-7 = low, 8-13 = medium, 14-21 = high, and 22-28 = maximal).

Result

Around two-thirds (68.1%) of players presented active PR at different activity levels. Among them, a small proportion (7.2%) had medium GS, while 60.9% had a low GS. The GS was not dependent on field position or the age of the players (p > 0.05). However, playing football in an age category higher than their own was associated with significantly more active primitive reflexes (PR) compared to being in their age category (p < 0.01). The results showed that 72.7% of "upgraded" football players had low GS and 18.2% had medium GS, compared to 55.3% and 2.1% in the non-upgraded group.

Discussion

The findings of the current study demonstrate that PR could still be active in a healthy population of high-level football players. Practicing a single sport for years and upgrading players could create a negative environment that can ultimately lead to the activation of otherwise integrated PR.

Developmental Language Disorder and Uninhibited Primitive Reflexes in Young Children

Purpose Developmental language disorder (DLD) is a developmental disorder where children fail to acquire language in the absence of a clear cause. Many studies have reported general motor deficits in children with DLD, but no studies have uncovered a cure. The purpose of our study is to better understand the underlying motor deficits in DLD, starting from uninhibited primary reflexes-which are the most basic stage of motor development. Knowledge of this motor-language relationship should lead to earlier and more targeted interventions in young children with DLD. Method Children with DLD (n = 75, age range: 4-10 years) and 99 age-matched typically developing (TD) children completed a nonword repetition test to assess DLD and six other tests to assess primitive reflexes. Results Children with DLD demonstrated higher levels of persistent primitive reflexes compared to TD children. As the scores for neuromotor immaturity increased, nonword repetition test scores decreased (r = -.44, p < .01). Results indicated that TD children exhibited lower neuromotor immaturity (M = 7.63, SD = 3.75) compared to children with DLD (M = 13.51, SD = 4.47). All primitive reflexes (the Moro reflex, the symmetrical tonic neck reflex in flexion and in extension, the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, the tonic labyrinthine reflex, and the Galant reflex) turned out to be statistically significantly different for the TD and DLD groups (p < .001). We also observed some differences between sexes. Conclusions Children with impaired language development underwent slower neuromotor development. However, further research is needed to determine whether motor intervention programs that inhibit primitive reflexes are helpful for children with DLD.

Carrying human infants - An evolutionary heritage

We propose that infant carrying is a biological norm for human caregiving, given that human infants have evolved a capacity to cling onto an upright caregiver whose body co-evolved to enable offspring carrying. The origins of this mutual adaptation may date back 4 million years, with the emergence of bipedalism, which precluded the infant horizontal and gravity-supported position on the back of a quadrupedal caregiver. We describe infant cooperative reflexes and behaviors, including the carrying-induced calming response and discuss hypotheses for the invention of infant carrier tools. Carrying involves several physiological and behavioral parent-infant co-adaptations that imply it is an evolutionarily conserved strategy. Epigenetic transmission of reproductive behavior through generations affects the development of the offspring, as well as the mental health of the parent. Carrying might have contributed to the evolution of Hominidae, potentially aiding dexterity, handedness, language acquisition, and social interactions. We review the evolutionary milestones and time points where the infant-caregiver interactions might have changed, exploring infant carrying as it intersects with biological and cultural evolution. We briefly summarize the effects of infant carrying on physiological, epigenetic, and socio-emotional outcomes.

Emission of 22 kHz vocalizations in rats as an evolutionary equivalent of human crying: Relationship to depression

There is no clear relationship between crying and depression based on human neuropsychiatric observations. This situation originates from lack of suitable animal models of human crying. In the present article, an attempt will be made to answer the question whether emission of rat aversive vocalizations (22 kHz calls) may be regarded as an evolutionary equivalent of adult human crying. Using this comparison, the symptom of crying in depressed human patients will be reanalyzed. Numerous features and characteristics of rat 22 kHz aversive vocalizations and human crying vocalizations are equivalent. Comparing evolutionary, biological, physiological, neurophysiological, social, pharmacological, and pathological aspects have shown vast majority of common features. It is concluded that emission of rat 22 kHz vocalizations may be treated as an evolutionary vocal homolog of human crying, although emission of 22 kHz calls is not exactly the same phenomenon because of significant differences in cognitive processes between these species. It is further concluded that rat 22 kHz vocalizations and human crying vocalizations are both expressing anxiety and not depression. Analysis of the relationship between anxiety and depression reported in clinical studies supports this conclusion regardless of the nature and extent of comorbidity between these pathological states.

Developmental Coordination Disorder: The Importance of Grounded Assessments and Interventions

This focused review is based on earlier studies which have shown that both children and adults diagnosed as having developmental coordination disorder (DCD), benefited from sensorimotor therapy according to the method Retraining for Balance (RB). Different approaches and assessments for children and adults in regard to DCD are scrutinized and discussed in comparison to RB which mainly includes (a) vestibular assessment and stimulation (b) assessment and integration of aberrant primary reflexes and (c) assessment and stimulation of auditory and visual perception. Earlier results indicate that the process of Sensorimotor therapy using RB techniques could be described according to a conceptual Kinesthetic-Vestibular Developmental Model (KVDM) whereby the training elicited temporary physical and psychological regressions followed by transformations i.e., positive physical and psychological development. We have also seen that this recurring pattern is similar for children and adults. In our conceptual model vestibular stimulation (perceptual priming) stimulates the nervous system, which might enhance object-related priming. This perceptual priming will also assist the suppression of persistent aberrant primary reflexes. In order to develop effective methods for assessment and intervention of DCD over the life span the importance of primary reflex inhibition and vestibular stimulation as well as a combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches have to be considered.