Severe brachial plexus injuries in rugby

It's in the game: A review of neurological lesions associated with sports

INTRODUCTION

The practice of sports may lead to neurological injuries. While relatively uncommon (overall incidence of approximately 2.5%), and mostly benign and transient, some conditions may be life-threatening and permanent. Thus, both clinical neurologists and sports physicians should be aware of their existence and relevance. We aimed to review all sports-related neurological injuries and illnesses reported in the literature.

METHODS

Following SANRA guidelines, we performed a narrative review and searched PubMed and Scopus databases. Relevant sports were selected based on their recognition as an Olympic sport by the International Olympic Committee. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and other neurodegenerative disorders were not included.

RESULTS

A total of 292 studies were included concerning 33 different sports. The most reported neurological injury was damage to the peripheral nervous system. Traumatic injuries have also been extensively reported, including cerebral haemorrhage and arterial dissections. Non-traumatic life-threatening events are infrequent but may also occur, e.g. posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, cerebral venous thrombosis, and arterial dissections. Some conditions were predominantly reported in specific sports, e.g. yips in baseball and golf, raising the possibility of a common pathophysiology. Spinal cord infarction due to fibrocartilaginous embolism was reported in several sports associated with minor trauma.

CONCLUSION

Sports-related neurological injuries are increasingly receiving more social and medical attention and are an important cause of morbidity and mortality. This review may serve as a guide to physicians managing these challenging situations.

Clinical outcomes report in different brachial plexus injury surgeries: a systematic review

Brachial plexus injury is a lesion that results in loss of function of the arm, and there are multiple ways of surgically approaching its treatment. Controlled trials that compare all surgical repair strategies and their clinical outcomes have not been performed. A systematic review was conducted to identify all articles that reported clinical outcomes in different surgeries (nerve transfer, nerve graft, neurolysis, end-to-end, multiple interventions, and others). Advanced search in PubMed was performed using the Mesh terms "brachial plexus injury" as the main topic and "surgery" as a subtopic, obtaining a total of 2153 articles. The clinical data for eligibility extraction was focused on collecting motor, sensory, pain, and functional recovery. A statistical analysis was performed to find the superior surgical techniques in terms of motor recovery, through the assessment of heterogeneity between groups, and of relationships between surgery and motor recovery. The frequency and the manner in which clinical outcomes are recording were described. The differences that correspond to the demographics and procedural factors were not statistically significant among groups (p > 0.05). Neurolysis showed the highest proportion of motor recovery (85.18%), with significant results between preoperative and post-operative motor assessment (p = 0.028). The proportion of motor recovery in each group according to the surgical approach differed significantly (X² = 82.495, p = 0.0001). The motor outcome was the most reported clinical outcome (97.56%), whereas the other clinical outcomes were reported in less than 15% of the included articles. Unexpectedly, neurolysis, a technique displaced by new surgical alternatives such as nerve transfer/graft, demonstrated the highest proportion of motor recovery. Clinical outcomes such as pain, sensory, and functional recovery were infrequently reported. These results introduce the need to re-evaluate neurolysis through comparative clinical trials, as well as to standardize the way in which clinical outcomes are reported.

Epidemiology, etiology, and types of severe adult brachial plexus injuries requiring surgical repair: systematic review and meta-analysis

The literature describing epidemiology, etiology, and types of serious brachial plexus injuries (BPIs) is sparse. The aim of this review was to investigate the epidemiological and etiopathogenetical data of serious BPIs undergoing surgical reconstruction. A systematic search was conducted from January 1985 to December 2017. All studies that reported data about prevalence of specific types and causes of BPIs in adults treated surgically were included and cumulatively analyzed. Ten studies including 3032 patients were identified. The pooled prevalence of closed BPIs was 93% (95% CI: 87-97%), lacerations accounted for 3% (95% CI: 1-6%), and gunshot wounds (GSWs) for 3% (95% CI: 0-7%). The prevalence of male patients was 93% (95% CI: 90-96%) and female cases 7% (95% CI: 4-10%). The most common cause of closed BPI was motorcycle accidents with 67% (95% CI: 49-82%) prevalence followed by car crashes with 14% (95% CI: 8-20%). Other causes were rare. Ninety percent (95% CI: 78-98%) of patients suffered from a supraclavicular or combined supra-/infraclavicular trauma, while 10% (95% CI: 2-22%) from isolated infraclavicular injury. The prevalence of complete lesions was 53% (95% CI: 47-58%) followed by upper plexus lesion with 39% (95% CI: 31-48%) and lower plexus injury with 6% (95% CI: 1-12%). This meta-analysis demonstrates that the typical patient suffering from severe BPI is a male after motorcycle accident with closed supraclavicular injury causing complete or slightly less commonly upper plexus palsy. Lacerations and GSWs of brachial plexus are rare.

Timing of surgery in traumatic brachial plexus injury: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Ideal timeframes for operating on traumatic stretch and blunt brachial plexus injuries remain a topic of debate. Whereas on the one hand spontaneous recovery might occur, on the other hand, long delays are believed to result in poorer functional outcomes. The goal of this review is to assess the optimal timeframe for surgical intervention for traumatic brachial plexus injuries.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed in January 2017 in PubMed and Embase databases according to the PRISMA guidelines. Search terms related to "brachial plexus injury" and "timing" were used. Obstetric plexus palsies were excluded. Qualitative synthesis was performed on all studies. Timing of operation and motor outcome were collected from individual patient data. Patients were categorized into 5 delay groups (0-3, 3-6, 6-9, 9-12, and > 12 months). Median delays were calculated for Medical Research Council (MRC) muscle grade ≥ 3 and ≥ 4 recoveries.

RESULTS

Forty-three studies were included after full-text screening. Most articles showed significantly better motor outcome with delays to surgery less than 6 months, with some studies specifying even shorter delays. Pain and quality of life scores were also significantly better with shorter delays. Nerve reconstructions performed after long time intervals, even more than 12 months, can still be useful. All papers reporting individual-level patient data described a combined total of 569 patients; 65.5% of all patients underwent operations within 6 months and 27.4% within 3 months. The highest percentage of ≥ MRC grade 3 (89.7%) was observed in the group operated on within 3 months. These percentages decreased with longer delays, with only 35.7% ≥ MRC grade 3 with delays > 12 months. A median delay of 4 months (IQR 3-6 months) was observed for a recovery of ≥ MRC grade 3, compared with a median delay of 7 months (IQR 5-11 months) for ≤ MRC grade 3 recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this systematic review show that in stretch and blunt injury of the brachial plexus, the optimal time to surgery is shorter than 6 months. In general, a 3-month delay appears to be appropriate because while recovery is better in those operated on earlier, this must be considered given the potential for spontaneous recovery.

Severe Brachial Plexus Injuries in American Football

This article reports a series of severe permanent brachial plexus injuries in American football players. The authors describe the mechanisms of injury and outcomes from a more contemporary treatment approach in the form of nerve transfer tailored to the specific injuries sustained. Three cases of nerve transfer for brachial plexus injury in American football players are discussed in detail. Two of these patients regained functional use of the extremity, but 1 patient with a particularly severe injury did not regain significant function. Brachial plexus injuries are found along a spectrum of brachial plexus stretch or contusion that includes the injuries known as "stingers." Early identification of these severe brachial plexus injuries allows for optimal outcomes with timely treatment. Diagnosis of the place of a given injury along this spectrum is difficult and requires a combination of imaging studies, nerve conduction studies, and close monitoring of physical examination findings over time. Although certain patients may be at higher risk for stingers, there is no evidence to suggest that this correlates with a higher risk of severe brachial plexus injury. Unfortunately, no equipment or strengthening program has been shown to provide a protective effect against these severe injuries. Patients with more severe injuries likely have less likelihood of functional recovery. In these patients, nerve transfer for brachial plexus injury offers the best possibility of meaningful recovery without significant morbidity. [ Orthopedics. 2016; 39(6):e1188-e1192.].

Traumatic brachial plexus injury: electrodiagnostic findings from 111 patients in a tertiary care hospital in India

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to characterise the electrodiagnostic findings of patients with traumatic brachial plexus injuries (BPIs) in India and to analyse the association between aetiologies and levels of injuries.

METHODS

A total of 111 consecutive electrodiagnostic studies done between January 2009 and June 2011 on persons with traumatic BPI were retrospectively analysed.

SETTING

Electrodiagnostic Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation in a tertiary care university teaching hospital in South India.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Nerve conduction velocities and electromyography (EMG) to locate the level of BPI, Dumitru and Wilbourne scale to assess the severity of BPI.

RESULTS

We studied 106 males and five females, ranging from 11 to 59 years of age. All but one had unilateral BPI. Motorcycle crashes were the most frequent cause (n=64, 58%). Isolated supraclavicular injury was found in 98 arms (88%) and infraclavicular injury in seven arms (6%). Root-level injuries were more common in motorcycle crashes and occupation-related trauma, while trunk-level injuries were more often found in automobile crashes, falls, bicycle-related trauma and penetrating wounds. Pan root (C5-T1) involvement was more common in the motorcycle trauma group (74%). There was no significant association between aetiologies and levels of BPIs. A total of 73 (65%) plexus injuries were of 'severe' category as per Dumitru and Wilbourn scale.

CONCLUSIONS

Motorcycle crash is the most common cause of traumatic BPIs. Supraclavicular injury is the rule in most cases. Proper attention needs to be given to differentiate the mild to moderate injuries from the severe injuries with EMG techniques since most of the cases are severe. There was no significant association found between aetiologies and levels of injury.