Risk stratification in trauma and haemorrhagic shock: scoring systems derived from the TraumaRegister DGU(®)

Role of adenosine A3 receptor and endothelial nitric oxide synthase in patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock

BACKGROUND

The aim of this research is to access the expression of adenosine A3 receptor (ADORA3) and nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3) genes and serum levels of ADORA3 and NOS3 in patients with multiple trauma with hemorrhagic shock.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was performed at Erciyes University between November 2022 and March 2024, in a prospective and controlled manner. Patients diagnosed with traumatic hemorrhagic shock and requiring transfusion in the emergency department were selected as the patients group. Gene expressions were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR analysis in total RNA samples and serum levels of NOS3 and ADORA3 were detected using ELISA measurements.

RESULTS

In patients with multiple trauma, adenosine A3 receptor (ADORA3) gene expression showed a significant increase at discharge when compared to healthy controls (P < 0.05). However, serum levels of ADORA3 showed significant decreases at all stages (i.e. at admission, at 24 h, and at discharge) of patients. Although no significant changes were detected in NOS3 gene expression, marked decreases in serum NOS3 levels were observed at admission and at 24 h in multiple trauma patients (P < 0.05). ADORA3 and NOS3 gene expressions were found to be significantly diminished in nonsurvivors.

CONCLUSION

The study emphasizes the importance of ADORA3 and NOS3 gene expressions in influencing shock progression in multiple trauma patients. The increase in ADORA3 gene expression may play a role in restoring vascular reactivity after traumatic shock. Decreased serum NOS3 and ADORA3 levels can contribute to the shock progression in the pathophysiology of multiple trauma.

Uso de los gases arteriales en trauma

El trauma continúa siendo una de las primeras causas de muertes prevenibles en nuestro país. A pesar de la disminución del trauma militar, la incidencia que abarca todas las formas de trauma continúa siendo alta y congestiona los servicios de urgencias, por eso es fundamental el adecuado enfoque inicial para disminuir la mortalidad. Tradicionalmente, se han utilizado marcadores, como los signos vitales, para la identificación del choque hemorrágico, pero estudios observacionales de gran escala han demostrado cómo estos muchas veces no logran identificar a los pacientes con choque hemorrágico, haciendo necesario usar marcadores más objetivos, como los gases arteriales, con la medición del lactato y el déficit de base, que según literatura tienen mejor predicción de mortalidad, identificación temprana del choque y activación temprana de protocolos transfusionales.

Blood Glucose Levels Combined with Triage Revised Trauma Score Improve the Outcome Prediction in Adults and in Elderly Patients with Trauma

INTRODUCTION

This study was aimed to assess if combining the evaluation of blood glucose level (BGL) and the Triage Revised Trauma Score (T-RTS) may result in a more accurate prediction of the actual clinical outcome, both in general adult population and in elderly patients with trauma.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study, conducted in the emergency department (ED) of an urban teaching hospital, with an average ED admission rate of 75,000 patients per year. Those excluded: known diagnosis of diabetes, age <18 years old, pregnancy, and mild trauma (classified as isolate trauma of upper or lower limb, in absence of exposed fractures). A combined Revised Trauma Score Glucose (RTS-G) score was obtained adding to T-RTS: two for BGL <160mg/dL (8.9mmol/L); one for BGL ≥160mg/dL and < 200mg/dL (11.1mmol/L); and zero for BGL ≥ 200mg/dL. The primary outcome was a composite of patient's death in ED or admission to intensive care unit (ICU). Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used to evaluate the overall performance of T-RTS and of the combined RTS-G score.

RESULTS

Among a total of 68,933 traumas, 9,436 patients (4,407 females) were enrolled, aged from 18 to 103 years; 4,288 were aged ≥65 years. A total of 577 (6.1%) met the primary endpoint: 38 patients died in ED (0.4%) and 539 patients were admitted to ICU. The T-RTS and BGL were independently associated to primary endpoint at multivariate analysis. The cumulative RTS-G score was significantly more accurate than T-RTS and reached the best accuracy in elderly patients. In general population, ROC area under curve (AUC) for T-RTS was 0.671 (95% CI, 0.661 - 0.680) compared to RTS-G ROC AUC 0.743 (95% CI, 0.734 - 0.752); P <.001. In patients ≥65 years, T-RTS ROC AUC was 0.671 (95% CI, 0.657 - 0.685) compared to RTS-G ROC AUC 0.780 (95% CI, 0.768 - 0.793); P <.001.

CONCLUSIONS

Results showed RTS-G could be used effectively at ED triage for the risk stratification for death in ED and ICU admission of trauma patients, and it could reduce under-triage of approximately 20% compared to T-RTS. Comparing ROC AUCs, the combined RTS-G score performs significantly better than T-RTS and gives best results in patients ≥65 years.

Independent Predictors of Mortality in Torso Trauma Injuries

Noncompressible torso injuries (NCTIs) represent a trauma-related condition with high lethality. This study’s aim was to identify potential prediction factors of mortality in this group of trauma patients at a Level 1 trauma center in Italy. Materials and Methods: A total of 777 patients who had sustained a noncompressible torso injury (NCTI) and were admitted to the Niguarda Trauma Center in Milan from 2010 to 2019 were included. Of these, 166 patients with a systolic blood pressure (SBP) <90 mmHg were considered to have a noncompressible torso hemorrhage (NCTH). Demographic data, mechanism of trauma, pre-hospital and in-hospital clinical conditions, diagnostic/therapeutic procedures, and survival outcome were retrospectively recorded. Results: Among the 777 patients, 69% were male and 90.2% sustained a blunt trauma with a median age of 43 years. The comparison between survivors and non-survivors pointed out a significantly lower pre-hospital Glasgow coma scale (GCS) and SBP (p < 0.001) in the latter group. The multivariate backward regression model identified age, pre-hospital GCS and injury severity score (ISS) (p < 0.001), pre-hospital SBP (p = 0.03), emergency department SBP (p = 0.039), performance of torso contrast enhanced computed tomography (CeCT) (p = 0.029), and base excess (BE) (p = 0.008) as independent predictors of mortality. Conclusions: Torso trauma patients who were hemodynamically unstable in both pre- and in-hospital phases with impaired GCS and BE had a greater risk of death. The detection of independent predictors of mortality allows for the timely identification of a subgroup of patients whose chances of survival are reduced.

Why do some trauma patients die while others survive? A matched-pair analysis based on data from Trauma Register DGU®

PURPOSE

The mortality rate for severely injured patients with the injury severity score (ISS) ≥16 has decreased in Germany. There is robust evidence that mortality is influenced not only by the acute trauma itself but also by physical health, age and sex. The aim of this study was to identify other possible influences on the mortality of severely injured patients.

METHODS

In a matched-pair analysis of data from Trauma Register DGU®, non-surviving patients from Germany between 2009 and 2014 with an ISS≥16 were compared with surviving matching partners. Matching was performed on the basis of age, sex, physical health, injury pattern, trauma mechanism, conscious state at the scene of the accident based on the Glasgow coma scale, and the presence of shock on arrival at the emergency room.

RESULTS

We matched two homogeneous groups, each of which consisted of 657 patients (535 male, average age 37 years). There was no significant difference in the vital parameters at the scene of the accident, the length of the pre-hospital phase, the type of transport (ground or air), pre-hospital fluid management and amounts, ISS, initial care level, the length of the emergency room stay, the care received at night or from on-call personnel during the weekend, the use of abdominal sonographic imaging, the type of X-ray imaging used, and the percentage of patients who developed sepsis. We found a significant difference in the new injury severity score, the frequency of multi-organ failure, hemoglobine at admission, base excess and international normalized ratio in the emergency room, the type of accident (fall or road traffic accident), the pre-hospital intubation rate, reanimation, in-hospital fluid management, the frequency of transfusion, tomography (whole-body computed tomography), and the necessity of emergency intervention.

CONCLUSION

Previously postulated factors such as the level of care and the length of the emergency room stay did not appear to have a significant influence in this study. Further studies should be conducted to analyse the identified factors with a view to optimising the treatment of severely injured patients. Our study shows that there are significant factors that can predict or influence the mortality of severely injured patients.

Increased Severe Trauma Patient Volume is Associated With Survival Benefit and Reduced Total Health Care Costs: A Retrospective Observational Study Using a Japanese Nationwide Administrative Database

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the associations of severe trauma patient volume with survival benefit and health care costs.

BACKGROUND

The effect of trauma patient volume on survival benefit is inconclusive, and reports on its effects on health care costs are scarce.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective observational study, including trauma patients who were transferred to government-approved tertiary emergency hospitals, or hospitals with an intensive care unit that provided an equivalent quality of care, using a Japanese nationwide administrative database. We categorized hospitals according to their annual severe trauma patient volumes [1 to 50 (reference), 51 to 100, 101 to 150, 151 to 200, and ≥201]. We evaluated the associations of volume categories with in-hospital survival and total cost per admission using a mixed-effects model adjusting for patient severity and hospital characteristics.

RESULTS

A total of 116,329 patients from 559 hospitals were analyzed. Significantly increased in-hospital survival rates were observed in the second, third, fourth, and highest volume categories compared with the reference category [94.2% in the highest volume category vs 88.8% in the reference category, adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval, 95% CI) = 1.75 (1.49-2.07)]. Furthermore, significantly lower costs (in US dollars) were observed in the second and fourth categories [mean (standard deviation) for fourth vs reference = $17,800 ($17,378) vs $20,540 ($32,412), adjusted difference (95% CI) = -$2559 (-$3896 to -$1221)].

CONCLUSIONS

Hospitals with high volumes of severe trauma patients were significantly associated with a survival benefit and lower total cost per admission.

Role of Hemorrhagic Shock in Experimental Polytrauma

Hemorrhagic shock (HS) after tissue trauma increases the complication and mortality rate of polytrauma (PT) patients. Although several murine trauma models have been introduced, there is a lack of knowledge about the exact impact of an additional HS. We hypothesized that HS significantly contributes to organ injury, which can be reliably monitored by detection of specific organ damage markers. Therefore we established a novel clinically relevant PT plus HS model in C57BL/6 mice which were randomly assigned to control, HS, PT, or PT+HS procedure (n = 8 per group). For induction of PT, anesthetized animals received a blunt chest trauma, head injury, femur fracture, and soft tissue injury. HS was induced by pressure-controlled blood drawing (mean arterial blood pressure of 30 mmHg for 60 min) and mice then resuscitated with ionosterile (4 × volume drawn), monitored, and killed for blood and organ harvesting 4 h after injury. After HS and resuscitation, PT+HS mice required earlier and overall more catecholamine support than HS animals to keep their mean arterial blood pressure. HS significantly contributed to the systemic release of interleukin-6 and high mobility group box 1 protein. Furthermore, the histological lung injury score, pulmonary edema, neutrophil influx, and plasma clara cell protein 16 were all significantly enhanced in PT animals in the presence of an additional HS. Although early morphological changes were minor, HS also contributed functionally to remote acute kidney injury but not to early liver damage. Moreover, PT-induced systemic endothelial injury, as determined by plasma syndecan-1 levels, was significantly aggravated by an additional HS. These results indicate that HS adds to the systemic inflammatory reaction early after PT. Within hours after PT, HS seems to aggravate pulmonary damage and to worsen renal and endothelial function which might overall contribute to the development of early multiple organ dysfunction.

Cerebral Alterations Following Experimental Multiple Trauma and Hemorrhagic Shock

Multiple trauma (MT) associated with hemorrhagic shock (HS) might lead to cerebral hypoperfusion and brain damage. We investigated cerebral alterations using a new porcine MT/HS model without traumatic brain injury (TBI) and assessed the neuroprotective properties of mild therapeutic hypothermia. Male pigs underwent standardized MT with HS (45% or 50% loss of blood volume) and resuscitation after 90/120 min (T90/T120). In additional groups (TH90/TH120) mild hypothermia (33°C) was induced following resuscitation. Normothermic or hypothermic sham animals served as controls. Intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), and cerebral oxygenation (PtiO2) were recorded up to 48.5 h. Serum protein S-100B and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) were measured by ELISA. Cerebral inflammation was quantified on hematoxylin and eosin -stained brain slices; Iba1, S100, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression was assessed using immunohistochemistry. Directly after MT/HS, CPP and PtiO2 were significantly lower in T90/T120 groups compared with sham. After resuscitation both parameters showed a gradual recovery. Serum protein S-100B and NSE increased temporarily as a result of MT/HS in T90 and T90/T120 groups, respectively. Cerebral inflammation was found in all groups. Iba1-staining showed significant microgliosis in T90 and T120 animals. iNOS-staining indicated a M1 polarization. Mild hypothermia reduced cerebral inflammation in the TH90 group, but resulted in increased iNOS activation. In this porcine long-term model, we did not find evidence of gross cerebral damage when resuscitation was initiated within 120 min after MT/HS without TBI. However, trauma-related microglia activation and M1 microglia polarization might be a consequence of temporary hypoxia/ischemia and further research is warranted to detail underlying mechanisms. Interestingly, mild hypothermia did not exhibit neuroprotective properties when initiated in a delayed fashion.

Analyses of changes in myocardial long non-coding RNA and mRNA profiles after severe hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation via RNA sequencing in a rat model

Background

Ischemia–reperfusion injury has been proven to induce organ dysfunction and death, although the mechanism is not fully understood. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have drawn wide attention with their important roles in the gene expression of some biological processes and diseases, including myocardial ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. In this paper, a total of 26 Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats were randomized into two groups: sham and ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. Hemorrhagic shock was induced by removing 45% of the estimated total blood volume followed by reinfusion of shed blood. High-throughput RNA sequencing was used to analyze differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) in the heart tissue 4 h after reperfusion. Myocardial function was also evaluated.

Results

After resuscitation, the decline of myocardial function of shocked animals, expressed by cardiac output, ejection fraction, and myocardial performance index (MPI), was significant (p < 0.05). DE lncRNAs and mRNAs were identified by absolute value of fold change ≥ 2 and the false discovery rate ≤ 0.001. In rats from the I/R injury group, 851 lncRNAs and 1015 mRNAs were significantly up-regulated while 1533 lncRNAs and 1702 m RNAs were significantly down-regulated when compared to the sham group. Among the DE lncRNAs, we found 12 location-associated with some known apoptosis-related protein-coding genes which were up-regulated or down-regulated accordingly, including STAT3 and Il1r1. Real time PCR assays confirmed that the expression levels of five location-associated lncRNAs (NONRATT006032.2, NONRATT006033.2, NONRATT006034.2, NONRATT006035.2 and NONRATT029969.2) and their location-associated mRNAs (STAT3 and Il1r1) in the rats from the I/R injury group were all significantly up-regulated versus the sham group.

Conclusions

The DE lncRNAs (NONRATT006032.2, NONRATT006033.2, NONRATT006034.2 and NONRATT006035.2) could be compatible with their role in myocardial protection by stimulating their co-located gene (STAT3) after hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation. The final prognosis of I/R injury might be regulated by different genes, which is regarded as a complex network.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12867-018-0113-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A comparison of base deficit and vital signs in the early assessment of patients with penetrating trauma in a high burden setting

INTRODUCTION

An assessment of physiological status is a key step in the early assessment of trauma patients with implications for triage, investigation and management. This has traditionally been done using vital signs. Previous work from large European trauma datasets has suggested that base deficit (BD) predicts clinically important outcomes better than vital signs (VS). A BD derived classification of haemorrhagic shock appeared superior to one based on VS derived from ATLS criteria in a population of predominantly blunt trauma patients. The initial aim of this study was to see if this observation would be reproduced in penetrating trauma patients. The power of each individual variable (BD, heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), shock index(SI) (HR/SBP) and Glasgow Coma Score (GCS)) to predict mortality was then also compared.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of adult trauma patients presenting to the Pietermaritzburg Metropolitan Trauma Service was performed. Patients were classified into four "shock" groups using VS or BD and the outcomes compared. Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves were then generated to compare the predictive power for mortality of each individual variable.

RESULTS

1863 patients were identified. The overall mortality rate was 2.1%. When classified by BD, HR rose and SBP fell as the "shock class" increased but not to the degree suggested by the ATLS classification. The BD classification of haemorrhagic shock appeared to predict mortality better than that based on the ATLS criteria. Mortality increased from 0.2% (Class 1) to 19.7% (Class 4) based on the 4 level BD classification. Mortality increased from 0.3% (Class 1) to 12.6% (Class 4) when classified based by VS. Area under the receiver operator characteristic (AUROC) curve analysis of the individual variables demonstrated that BD predicted mortality significantly better than HR, GCS, SBP and SI. AUROC curve (95% Confidence Interval (CI)) for BD was 0.90 (0.85-0.95) compared to HR 0.67(0.56-0.77), GCS 0.70(0.62-0.79), SBP 0.75(0.65-0.85) and SI 0.77(0.68-0.86).

CONCLUSION

BD appears superior to vital signs in the immediate physiological assessment of penetrating trauma patients. The use of BD to assess physiological status may help refine their early triage, investigation and management.

Vital sign based shock scores are poor at triaging South African trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Traumatic shock cannot be diagnosed by a single physiological measurement and a number of vital sign based combined shock scores (CSS) have been proposed to identify and triage trauma patients with shock. This audit uses data from a prospectively entered electronic trauma registry to compare the ability of these CSS to predict in-hospital mortality, need for surgery, need for blood transfusion and ICU admission.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data used in the study was obtained from the Hybrid Electronic Medical Record (HEMR) in Pietermaritzburg from January 2012-September 2015. The calculated scores (Systolic Blood Pressure [SBP], Mean Arterial Pressure [MAP], Shock Index [SI], Modified Shock Index [MSI] and Shock Index multiplied by Age [SIA]) were plotted against each outcome parameter and the inflection points at which they started to increase, for each parameter, was determined and compared.

RESULTS

A total of 8793 patients met the inclusion criteria. After the datasets with missing data were removed, a total of 7623 patients were available for analyses. There was a slightly higher incidence of blunt trauma (46%) compared to penetrating trauma (43%). Area under the Receiver Operating Curves (AUROC) for prediction of mortality revealed the MSI and SIA performed best, with values of 0.69 and 0.70, respectively. In both the 'need for ICU' prediction as well as the 'need for blood transfusion' prediction, MSI performed best with scores of 0.73 and 0.79, respectively. None of the parameters performed well in the 'need for surgery' prediction. None of the CSS parameters reached a 'good predictor capability' score of 0.8.

CONCLUSION

The currently available vital sign based scores (SBP, MAP, SI, MSI, SIA) used in the prediction of shock severity and triage are not good predictors of mortality, need for ICU, need for theatre or need for blood transfusion in our population where half the trauma is penetrating and there are long pre-hospital delays. Our data suggests that none of the proposed CSS's are capable of reliably and accurately identifying and categorizing shock states in South African trauma patients.

Comparing traditional and novel injury scoring systems in a US level-I trauma center: an opportunity for improved injury surveillance in low- and middle-income countries

BACKGROUND

In most low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the resources to accurately quantify injury severity using traditional injury scoring systems are limited. Novel injury scoring systems appear to have adequate discrimination for mortality in LMIC contexts, but they have not been rigorously compared where traditional injury scores can be accurately calculated. To determine whether novel injury scoring systems perform as well as traditional ones in a HIC with complete and comprehensive data collection.

METHODS

Data from an American level-I trauma registry collected 2008-2013 were used to compare three traditional injury scoring systems: Injury Severity Score (ISS); Revised Trauma Score (RTS); and Trauma Injury Severity Score (TRISS); and three novel injury scoring systems: Kampala Trauma Score (KTS); Mechanism, GCS, Age and Pressure (MGAP) score; and GCS, Age and Pressure (GAP) score. Logistic regression was used to assess the association between each scoring system and mortality. Standardized regression coefficients (β²), Akaike information criteria, area under the receiver operating characteristics curve, and the calibration line intercept and slope were used to evaluate the discrimination and calibration of each model.

RESULTS

Among 18,746 patients, all six scores were associated with hospital mortality. GAP had the highest effect size, and KTS had the lowest median Akaike information criteria. Although TRISS discriminated best, the discrimination of KTS approached that of TRISS and outperformed GAP, MGAP, RTS, and ISS. MGAP was best calibrated, and KTS was better calibrated than RTS, GAP, ISS, or TRISS.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel injury scoring systems (KTS, MGAP, and GAP), which are more feasible to calculate in low-resource settings, discriminated hospital mortality as well as traditional injury scoring systems (ISS and RTS) and approached the discrimination of a sophisticated, data-intensive injury scoring system (TRISS) in a high-resource setting. Two novel injury scoring systems (KTS and MGAP) surpassed the calibration of TRISS. These novel injury scoring systems should be considered when clinicians and researchers wish to accurately account for injury severity. Implementation of these resource-appropriate tools in LMICs can improve injury surveillance, guiding quality improvement efforts, and supporting advocacy for resource allocation commensurate with the volume and severity of trauma.