Immunoregulatory effects of sinomenine on the T-bet/GATA-3 ratio and Th1/Th2 cytokine balance in the treatment of mesangial proliferative nephritis

Sinomenine Alleviates Rheumatoid Arthritis by Suppressing the PI3K-Akt Signaling Pathway, as Demonstrated Through Network Pharmacology, Molecular Docking, and Experimental Validation

Purpose

Sinomenine (SIN) is commonly used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as a respected remedy for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Nevertheless, the therapeutic mechanism of SIN in RA remains incompletely understood. This study aimed to delve into the molecular mechanism of SIN in the treatment of RA.

Methods

The potential targets of SIN were predicted using the TCMSP server, STITCH database, and SwissTarget Prediction. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in RA were obtained from the GEO database. Enrichment analyses and molecular docking were conducted to explore the potential mechanism of SIN in the treatment of RA. In vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to validate the intervention effects of SIN on rheumatoid arthritis, as determined through network pharmacology analyses.

Results

A total of 39 potential targets associated with the therapeutic effects of SIN in RA were identified. Enrichment analysis revealed that these potential targets are primarily enriched in PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, and the molecular docking suggests that SIN may act on specific proteins in the pathway. Experimental results have shown that exposure to SIN inhibits cytokine secretion, promotes apoptosis, reduces metastasis and invasion, and blocks the activation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway in RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLS). Moreover, SIN treatment alleviated arthritis-related symptoms and regulated the differentiation of CD4+ T cells in the spleen of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice.

Conclusion

By utilizing network pharmacology, molecular modeling, and in vitro/in vivo validation, this study demonstrates that SIN can alleviate RA by inhibiting the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. These findings enhance the understanding of the therapeutic mechanisms of SIN in RA, offering a stronger theoretical foundation for its future clinical application.

A systematic review: Sinomenine

Sinomenine (SIN), an alkaloid derived from the traditional Chinese medicine, Caulis Sinomenii, has been used as an anti-inflammatory drug in China for over 30 years. With the continuous increase in research on the pharmacological mechanism of SIN, it has been found that, in addition to the typical rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment, SIN can be used as a potentially effective therapeutic drug for anti-tumour, anti-renal, and anti-nervous system diseases. By reviewing a large amount of literature and conducting a summary analysis of the literature pertaining to the pharmacological mechanism of SIN, we completed a review that focused on SIN, found that the current research is insufficient, and offered an outlook for future SIN development. We hope that this review will increase the public understanding of the pharmacological mechanisms of SIN, discover SIN research trial shortcomings, and promote the effective treatment of immune diseases, inflammation, and other related diseases.

Bioactivities and Mechanisms of Action of Sinomenine and Its Derivatives: A Comprehensive Review

Sinomenine, an isoquinoline alkaloid extracted from the roots and stems of Sinomenium acutum, has been extensively studied for its derivatives as bioactive agents. This review concentrates on the research advancements in the biological activities and action mechanisms of sinomenine-related compounds until November 2023. The findings indicate a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects, including antitumor, anti-inflammation, neuroprotection, and immunosuppressive properties. These compounds are notably effective against breast, lung, liver, and prostate cancers, exhibiting IC50 values of approximately 121.4 nM against PC-3 and DU-145 cells, primarily through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK/STAT signaling pathways. Additionally, they manifest anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects predominantly via the NF-κB, MAPK, and Nrf2 signaling pathways. Utilized in treating rheumatic arthritis, these alkaloids also play a significant role in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular protection, as well as organ protection through the NF-κB, Nrf2, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. This review concludes with perspectives and insights on this topic, highlighting the potential of sinomenine-related compounds in clinical applications and the development of medications derived from natural products.

Alkaloid variations within the genus Stephania (Menispermaceae) in China

The genus Stephania, which is rich in alkaloids, has been used as a traditional medicine or folklore herb against numerous ailments in China. However, the understanding of the variation within the genus Stephania is obscure, which limits the optimal utilization of the genus. An evaluation of the variation within the genus Stephania would help screen the ideal Stephania genotypes for drug utilization. In the present study, alkaloids in the tubers of four commonly cultivated Stephania species in China, i.e., the genotype Stephania kwangsiensis Lo. (SK-guangxi) from Guangxi Province and three Stephania yunnanensis H.S. Lo. genotypes (SY-xueteng, SY-hongteng, and SY-lvteng) sourced from Yunnan Province, were investigated, and the genus variations were compared. The results revealed significant variations in the abundance of alkaloids in tubers within the genus Stephania. The Stephania genotypes SY-xueteng and SY-hongteng showed a relatively high abundance of total alkaloids compared with the Stephania genotypes SK-guangxi and SY-lvteng. Specifically, the Stephania genotype SY-xueteng had a relatively high abundance of palmatine in tubers, and the Stephania genotype SY-hongteng exhibited a high abundance of stephanine in tubers. Our study provides foundations for further utilization of ideal Stephania genotypes by clarifying the variations in the alkaloid contents within the genus in China.

A review on pharmacokinetics of sinomenine and its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects

Autoimmune diseases (ADs), with significant effects on morbidity and mortality, are a broad spectrum of disorders featured by body's immune responses being directed against its own tissues, resulting in chronic inflammation and tissue damage. Sinomenine (SIN) is an alkaloid isolated from the root and stem of Sinomenium acutum which is mainly used to treat pain, inflammation and immune disorders for centuries in China. Its potential anti-inflammatory role for treating immune-related disorders in experimental animal models and in some clinical applications have been reported widely, suggesting an inspiring application prospect of SIN. In this review, the pharmacokinetics, drug delivery systems, pharmacological mechanisms of action underlying the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of SIN, and the possibility of SIN as adjuvant to disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) therapy were summarized and evaluated. This paper aims to reveal the potential prospects and limitations of SIN in the treatment of inflammatory and immune diseases, and to provide ideas for compensating its limitations and reducing the side effects, and thus to make SIN better translate to the clinic.

Sinomenine regulates immune cell subsets: Potential neuro-immune intervene for precise treatment of chronic pain

Chronic pain is a disease of long-lasting pain with unpleasant feelings mediated by central and (or) peripheral sensitization, its duration usually lasts more than 3 months or longer than the expected recovery time. The patients with chronic pain are manifested with enhanced sensitivity to noxious and non-noxious stimuli. Due to an incomplete understanding of the mechanisms, patients are commonly insensitive to the treatment of first line analgesic medicine in clinic. Thus, the exploration of non-opioid-dependent analgesia are needed. Recent studies have shown that "sinomenine," the main active ingredient in the natural plant "sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd. Et Wils," has a powerful inhibitory effect on chronic pain, but its underlying mechanism still needs to be further elucidated. A growing number of studies have shown that various immune cells such as T cells, B cells, macrophages, astrocytes and microglia, accompanied with the relative inflammatory factors and neuropeptides, are involved in the pathogenesis of chronic pain. Notably, the interaction of the immune system and sensory neurons is essential for the development of central and (or) peripheral sensitization, as well as the progression and maintenance of chronic pain. Based on the effects of sinomenine on immune cells and their subsets, this review mainly focused on describing the potential analgesic effects of sinomenine, with rationality of regulating the neuroimmune interaction.

Towards Better Sinomenine-Type Drugs to Treat Rheumatoid Arthritis: Molecular Mechanisms and Structural Modification

Sinomenine is the main component of the vine Sinomenium acutum. It was first isolated in the early 1920s and has since attracted special interest as a potential anti-rheumatoid arthritis (RA) agent, owing to its successful application in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of neuralgia and rheumatoid diseases. In the past few decades, significant advances have broadened our understanding of the molecular mechanisms through which sinomenine treats RA, as well as the structural modifications necessary for improved pharmacological activity. In this review, we summarize up-to-date reports on the pharmacological properties of sinomenine in RA treatment, document their underlying mechanisms, and provide an overview of promising sinomenine derivatives as potential RA drug therapies.

Sinomenine Improves Embryo Survival by Regulating Th1/Th2 Balance in a Mouse Model of Recurrent Spontaneous Abortion

Background

This study aims to explore the effect of Sinomenine (SIN) on pregnancy outcomes of recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) in a mouse model.

Material/Methods

Thirty female CBA/J mice were allocated into 3 groups randomly, then mated with BALB/c mice (CBA/J×BALB/c) as normal-pregnancy group (n=10), or mated with DBA/2 mice (CBA/J×DBA/2) as RSA model (n=10), or CBA/J×DBA/2 mice treated with SIN as RSA+SIN group (n=10). The number of surviving and reabsorbed embryos in each group were counted on day 13.5 of gestation. The mouse serum was collected to determine the levels of interferon-γ (IFN)-γ and IL-4 by ELISA. Immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and immunoblotting were used to determine the location, mRNA and protein expressions of IFN-γ, IL-4, T-bet and GATA3 in the decidual and placental tissue.

Results

In the RSA group, the amount of reabsorbed embryo was significantly higher than that in the normal-pregnancy group. However, SIN treatment showed a rescue effect on spontaneous abortion in RSA mice. IFN-γ, IL-4, T-bet, and GATA3 were all expressed in placental tissues and mainly located in the cytoplasm. The RSA group demonstrated higher expression levels of IFN-γ and T-bet than in the RSA+SIN and normal-pregnancy groups. Although RSA and RSA+SIN groups showed lower expression levels of IL-4 and GATA3 than in the normal-pregnancy group, there was no significant difference between RSA and RSA+SIN groups regarding IL-4 and GATA expression levels.

Conclusions

SIN treatment demonstrates a therapeutic effect on spontaneous abortion in RSA mice, possibly through regulating the balance of Th1/Th2 in maternal circulation and decidual tissues.

Network pharmacology approach to elucidate possible action mechanisms of Sinomenii Caulis for treating osteoporosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sinomenii Caulis (SC) is a well-konwn traditional Chinese medicine used for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), dermatophytosis and paralysis. Patients with RA are usually secondary to osteoporosis, but the potential protective effect of SC on osteoporosis (OP) is seldom reported and its possible action mechanism is little known.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the anti-osteoporosis effects of SC extract and alkaloids in prednisolone (Pre)-induced OP of zebrafish, and then to explore the potential mechanism of SC on system level by network pharmacology.

METHODS

Firstly, zebrafish OP model was established to investigate the anti-osteoporosis effect of SC. Secondly, the targets of SC and OP from multiple databases were collected, and Compound-Target-Pathway network based on protein-protein interaction (PPI) was constructed. Moreover, gene enrichment and annotation were performed via the DAVID server. Finally, the reliability of the network pharmacology prediction results in Pre-induced OP of zebrafish was verified by qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

The results indicated that SC extract and alkaloids have remarkable ability to promote bone formation of cranial bones and reduce TRAP contents in Pre-induced OP of zebrafish. 32 OP-related ingredients in SC and 77 OP-related targets were screened from multiple databases, and 15 OP-related pathways were enriched by the KEGG database. Further experimental validation indicated that SC extract and alkaloids could regulate the expression of MAPK14, CASP3, CXCL8, IL-1β, IL6, PTGS2, TNF-α, ESR1, and MMP9 for treatment of OP.

CONCLUSION

In summary, we conducted an integrative analysis to provide convincing evidence that SC may partially alleviate OP by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and regulating of RANK/RANKL/OPG system.

Effects of hypoxic exposure on immune responses of intestinal mucosa to Citrobacter colitis in mice

OBJECTIVE

The pathogenesis and mechanism of colitis may be related to intestinal flora, genetic susceptibility, environmental and immune factors. Among these various factors, the importance of environmental factors in the pathogenesis of colitis has been increasingly recognized. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of hypoxia on intestinal mucosal immunity.

METHODS

Experimental colitis was induced by oral gavage of Citrobacter rodentium (C. rodentium) in mice, then divided into normoxia group and hypoxia group. Mice were sacrificed after 2 weeks. Physiological and blood biochemical indicators were monitored to verify the hypoxia model. The body weight, fecal bacterial output, colon length and colon histopathology were observed to evaluate severity of colitis. The concentration of cytokines in colonic tissues were detected by ELISA. The percentage of CD4⁺ IFN-γ⁺ (Th1) and CD4⁺ IL-17⁺ (Th17) cells in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) were detected by flow cytometry. The levels of mucosal antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), related inflammatory factors and transcription factors in colon tissues were detected by qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

Mice in hypoxic C. rodentium infection (Hypoxia + C.r.) group exhibited significant decrease in body weight, increase in fecal bacterial pathogen output, and more severe histopathological damage in the colon compared with the C. rodentium infection (Nomoxia + C.r.) group. Meanwhile, the level of NF-κB, TLR4, COX-2, IL-6 and TNF-α of colonic tissue were increased, while IL17, IL-22, and Reg3γ were decreased. The percentage of CD4⁺ IFN-γ⁺ (Th1) and CD4⁺ IL-17⁺ (Th17) cells in MLN were significantly decreased in mice of Hypoxia + C.r. group, accompanied by the decreased of IFN-γ and IL-17. In addition, the level of the T-bet, RORγt, IL-12 and IL-23 were decreased in mice of Hypoxia + C.r. group.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypoxic exposure significantly exacerbates the symptoms and the pathological damage of mice with colitis and influences the immune function by down-regulating Th1 and Th17 responses in C. rodentium-induced colitis in mice.

Analgesic Mechanism of Sinomenine against Chronic Pain

Purified from the roots of the plant Sinomenium acutum, sinomenine is traditionally used in China and Japan for treating rheumatism and arthritis. Previously, we have demonstrated that sinomenine possessed a broad analgesic spectrum in various chronic pain animal models and repeated administration of sinomenine did not generate tolerance. In this review article, we discussed sinomenine's analgesic mechanism with focus on its role on immune regulation and neuroimmune interaction. Sinomenine has distinct immunoregulative properties, in which glutamate, adenosine triphosphate, nitric oxide, and proinflammatory cytokines are thought to be involved. Sinomenine may alter the unbalanced neuroimmune interaction and inhibit neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and central sensitization in chronic pain states. In conclusion, sinomenine has promising potential for chronic pain management in different clinical settings.

Therapeutic effect of mesenchymal stem cell on Hashimoto's thyroiditis in a rat model by modulating Th17/Treg cell balance

The autoimmune condition Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is a disease wherein lymphocytes mediate the autoimmune damage and destruction of the thyroid gland. There are currently no effective means of treating HT, with the primary strategies of thyroid hormone therapy, surgery, or immunomodulatory therapy being associated with serious risks and side effects. There is thus a clear and urgent need to identify novel treatments for HT. In this study, we utilize female SD rats induced HT to evaluated the ability of transplanted MSCs to regulate Th17/Treg interactions in a rat Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) model system. The results showed that Rats in the HT model group exhibited increased thyroid autoantibody levels consistent with successful model development, whereas these levels were lower in rats treated with MSCs. There were also fewer thyroid lesions and less lymphoid infiltration of the thyroid in MSC-treated rats relative to HT model rats, as well as fewer Th17 cells and more Treg cells - an observation consistent with the cytokine analyses. All of these showed that MSCs can regulate Th17/Treg interactions in a rat Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) model system. It suggested that transplanted MSCs could be a potential immunotherapy strategy for the treatment of Hashimoto's thyroiditis.

Sinomenine attenuates septic-associated lung injury through the Nrf2-Keap1 and autophagy

OBJECTIVES

Our present study focused on assessing whether Sinomenine (SIN) could attenuate sepsis-induced acute lung injury (ALI).

METHODS

The mice were conditioned with SIN 1 h before intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Lung wet/dry (W/D) ratio, inflammatory level in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and inflammatory cytokines production were detected. The expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-like 2 (Nrf2) and autophagy-related proteins were detected by Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses. In addition, the RAW264.7 cells were treated with SIN 1 h before treatment with LPS. Inflammatory cytokines, iNOS and COX2 were detected. The expression of Nrf2 and autophagy-related proteins were explored by Western blot analysis.

KEY FINDINGS

Experiments in vivo and in vitro discovered that LPS significantly increased the degree of injury, inflammatory cytokines production and oxidative stress. However, the increase was significantly inhibited by treatment of SIN. In addition, SIN was found to upregulate the expression of Nrf2 and autophagy-related proteins both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggested that SIN could attenuate septic-associated ALI effectively, probably due to the inhibition of inflammation and oxidative stress through Nrf2 and autophagy pathways.

Mesangial Cells Exhibit Features of Antigen-Presenting Cells and Activate CD4+ T Cell Responses

Background

Mesangial cells play a prominent role in the development of inflammatory diseases and autoimmune disorders of the kidney. Mesangial cells perform the essential functions of helping to ensure that the glomerular structure is stable and regulating capillary flow, and activated mesangial cells acquire proinflammatory activities. We investigated whether activated mesangial cells display immune properties and control the development of T cell immunity.

Methods

Flow cytometry analysis was used to study the expression of antigen-presenting cell surface markers and costimulatory molecules in mesangial cells. CD4+ T cell activation induced by mesangial cells was detected in terms of T cell proliferation and cytokine production.

Results

IFN-γ-treated mesangial cells express membrane proteins involved in antigen presentation and T cell activation, including MHC-II, ICAM-1, CD40, and CD80. This finding suggests that activated mesangial cells can take up and present antigenic peptides to initiate CD4+ T cell responses and thus act as nonprofessional antigen-presenting cells. Polarization of naïve CD4+ T cells (Th0 cells) towards the Th1 phenotype was induced by coculture with activated mesangial cells, and the resulting Th1 cells showed increased mRNA and protein expression of inflammation-associated genes.

Conclusion

Mesangial cells can present antigen and modulate CD4+ T lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation. Interactions between mesangial cells and T cells are essential for sustaining the inflammatory response in a variety of glomerulonephritides. Therefore, mesangial cells might participate in immune function in the kidney.

Bioinformatics Based Therapeutic Effects of Sinomenium Acutum

OBJECTIVE

To decipher the possible mechanisms of Sinomenium Acutum (SA) in treating diseases by a bioinformatics method.

METHODS

SA ingredients were searched according to Chinese Pharmacopoeia, Chinese Medicine Dictionary and Traditional Chinese Medicines Database (TCMD). Active compounds and target proteins of SA were acquired through the Pubchem platform. Pathway, network and function analyses of SA were performed with ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA), a bioinformatics analysis platform. Disease, biofunction-target networks were established with Cytoscape.

RESULTS

Eighteen ingredients from SA were obtained. Seven active ingredients with 31 active target proteins were acquired according to PubChem Bioassay test. By IPA analysis, 277 canonical pathways belonging to 17 function categories were collected, 23 kinds of diseases, 21 categories bio-functions were obtained. Based on P value, calculated by IPA, the top 5 significant pathway of SA targets include phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/Akt (PI3K/Akt) signaling, prostate cancer signaling, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) regulation of innate immunity, Guanosine-binding protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, and ataxia telangiectasia mutated protein (ATM) signaling. Disease and bio-function network analysis indicated that mitogen activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1), MAPK3, p65 nuclear factor κB (RELA), nuclear factor of κB inhibitor alpha (NFκBIA), interleukin 1β(IL-1β), prostaglandin G/H synthase 2 (PTGS2) and tumor protein 53 (TP53) were the critical targets in various diseases treated by SA.

CONCLUSION

In the different view of target, pathway, disease and bio-function, inflammation was found to be a central theme in many chronic conditions. SA could be used not only as an anti-inflammatory agent, but also for the treatment of cancers, neurological diseases, psychological disorders and metabolic diseases.

Anti-Depressant-Like Effect of Sinomenine on Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress-Induced Depression in a Mouse Model

BACKGROUND Sinomenine (SIN) is an extract of the Chinese medicinal herb Sinomenium acutum; it has various pharmacological properties, including immunosuppression and anti-inflammation. The present study aimed to investigate whether SIN has an anti-depressant-like effect in a mouse model of depression induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. MATERIAL AND METHODS A mouse model of depression was established and treated with different concentrations of SIN (30, 100, or 300 mg/kg). Then, behavioral tests, including sucrose preference test (SPT), forced swimming test (FST), and the tail suspension test (TST), were performed. The levels of norepinephrine (NE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β [IL-1β] interleukin-6 [IL-6], and tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α]) in the hippocampus of mice were detected by ELISA assay. The levels of p-p38, p-p65, NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1 were measured by Western blot or/and qRT-PCR. RESULTS The results showed that SIN significantly relieved CUMSinduced depressive-like behaviors. Compared with the model mice, SIN treatment significantly increased the sucrose preference of the mice, and the immobility time in the forced swimming and the tail suspension test were shortened. In addition, SIN decreased CUMS-induced reduction in the concentrations of NE and 5-HT in the hippocampus of mice. SIN reduced CUMS-induced increases in the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the hippocampus of mice. Furthermore, activation of the p38MAPK-NF-κB pathway and the nucleotide binding and oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome induced by CUMS were inhibited by SIN treatment. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, our results indicate the antidepressantlike effects of SIN on chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depression in a mouse model.

Sinomenine protects against E.coli-induced acute lung injury in mice through Nrf2-NF-κB pathway

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a common disease characterized by pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress. Sinomenine (SIN) is an alkaloid originally extracted from the Chinese medicinal plant Sinomenium acutum. It has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effect. However, it's unclear whether SIN can alleviate ALI. In this study, we assessed the effect of SIN on Escherichia coli (E.coli)-induced ALI mouse model. Mice were conditioned with SIN or placebo 1 h before intratracheally instilled with E.coli. Lung water content, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, Myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels and inflammatory cytokines production were measured. Immunohistochemistry and western blot were performed to measure target protein expression. E.coli induced histological changes indicating tissues damage and increased W/D ratio, MPO activity, MDA content, and inflammatory cytokines production in the Lung. Whereas in mice pretreated with SIN, these changes were absent. E.coli-induced NF-κB activation was also inhibited by SIN. In addition, SIN increased the expression of HO-1, NQO1 and Nrf2 in lung tissues. Our results suggest that SIN attenuates ALI through the inhibition of inflammation and oxidative stress.

Sinomenine alleviates dextran sulfate sodium‑induced colitis via the Nrf2/NQO‑1 signaling pathway

Sinomenine (SIN), a pure alkaloid isolated from Sinomenium acutum, has been widely used in arthritis for its anti‑inflammatory effect, but little is known about the effect of SIN on human ulcerative colitis (UC). In the present study, the effect and mechanism of SIN was examined in a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)‑induced murine colitis model, which mimics human UC. Oral administration of SIN significantly suppressed the elevated disease activity index and ameliorated colonic histological damage in a DSS‑induced colitis model. Tumor necrosis factor‑α, interleukin‑6 and inducible nitric oxide synthase levels were also reduced as detected by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In addition, SIN reversed the decreased colon length and colonic superoxide dismutase activity. Furthermore, western blot analysis revealed that nuclear factor‑erythroid 2‑related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream genes, heme oxygenase‑1 and NADP(H) quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO‑1), were markedly activated by SIN. The current results indicated that SIN alleviated DSS‑induced colitis in mice, which may be due to its antioxidant properties and was at least in part dependent on the Nrf2/NQO‑1 signaling pathway. Therefore, SIN may have potential applications as a protective drug for patients with UC.

Sinomenine inhibits the growth of melanoma by enhancement of autophagy via PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibition

Background

Melanoma is a common skin tumor in adults with high metastasis and mortality rates. Thus, finding a better effective approach to treat melanoma has become very urgent. Sinomenine (SIN), the major active compound of Sinomenium acutum, has shown antitumorigenic activities in certain cancers. However, its role in melanoma remains unclear.

Purpose

This study aimed to explore the effects of SIN on melanoma in vitro and in vivo, in addition to exploring the underlying mechanism.

Methods

Mouse melanoma cell B16-F10 treated by SIN was analyzed by CCK8 assay and flow cytometry. Melanoma xenograft model was then established by subcutaneously injection with B16-F10 cells. Tumor growth was measured by immunohistochemistry. To further investigate the relative mechanism, the autophagy and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway were examined by immunofluorescence and Western blot.

Results

Our results revealed that SIN dose dependently inhibited the proliferation of B16-F10 cells in vitro and attenuated melanoma growth in vivo. In addition, SIN treatment promoted the apoptosis of B16-F10 cells in a dose-dependent manner, as demonstrated by the increase in apoptotic cells, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and caspase-3 activity. Moreover, preconditioning with SIN dramatically enhanced autophagy activity by increasing Beclin-1 and LC3II/LC3I expression, in addition to decreasing p62 expression and augmenting the number of LC3 puncta, in B16-F10 cells. More importantly, autophagy inhibitor chloroquine partly abolished SIN’s effects on cell growth and apoptosis. Furthermore, our results showed that SIN-triggered activation of autophagy was mediated by PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Conclusion

Our study has identified a novel function of SIN and provided a molecular basis for potential applications of SIN in the treatment of melanoma and other cancers.

Ccl2 deficiency protects against chronic renal injury in murine renovascular hypertension

Inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of renal and cardiovascular disease in renovascular hypertension (RVH). Ccl2 is an important mediator of inflammation, and is induced within 24 hours following surgery to establish RVH in the murine 2 kidney 1 clip model, a time prior to onset of interstitial inflammation, fibrosis, or tubular atrophy. We tested the hypothesis that Ccl2 deficiency protects the stenotic kidney (STK) from development of chronic renal damage in mice with renovascular hypertension due to renal artery stenosis (RAS). RAS surgery was performed on wild type (WT) and Ccl2 knock out (KO) mice; animals were studied for four weeks. Renal blood flow was reduced to similar extent in both WT and Ccl2 KO mice with RVH. Perfusion of the stenotic kidney was significantly reduced in Ccl2 KO mice as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Stenotic kidney volume in WT, but not in Ccl2 KO mice, was significantly reduced following surgery. Cortical hypoxia was observed in the stenotic kidney of Ccl2 KO mice, as assessed by blood oxygen level-dependent MRI (BOLD-MRI). Ccl2 KO mice showed less cortical atrophy than WT RAS mice. Ccl2 deficiency reduced the number of infiltrating mononuclear cells and expression of Ccl5, Ccl7, Ccl8, Ccr2 and Cd206. We conclude that Ccl2 is a critical mediator of chronic renal injury in RVH.

Protective Effects of Sinomenine Against Ankylosing Spondylitis and the Underlying Molecular Mechanisms

BACKGROUND This study aimed to investigate the effect and underlying molecular mechanism of sinomenine (SIN) on ankylosing spondylitis (AS). MATERIAL AND METHODS To study the potential role of SIN in the pathogenesis of AS, an AS mouse model was established and mice were treated with different concentrations of SIN (10, 30, and 50 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally). Markers of inflammation and oxidative stress were determined by ELISA assay. Western blot analysis and qRT-PCR were used to quantify the levels of related proteins and gene mRNA expression. RESULTS The results suggest that AS mice has higher levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 (p<0.01 for all), and lower levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) (p<0.01 for all). SIN treatment reduced the level of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in a dose-dependent manner, and the levels of SOD, CAT, and GSH-PX were dose-dependently increased (p<0.05 for all). The results also revealed that NF-κBp65 expression decreased, while the level of IkB increased, in a dose-dependent manner, after SIN treatment in AS mice (p<0.05 for all). The level of p-p38 was dose-dependently reduced in AS mice by SIN treatment (p<0.05). Moreover, SIN inhibited Cox-2 expression in AS mice in a dose-dependent manner (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS SIN has a beneficial role in AS through suppressing inflammatory mediators and by down-regulating oxidative stress via inhibiting the MAPKp38/NF-kB pathway and Cox-2 expression.

Protective Effects of Sinomenine on CFA-Induced Inflammatory Pain in Rats

Background

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of sinomenine (SIN) on CFA-induced inflammatory pain in rats, and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Material/Methods

To determine the potential influences of SIN in the pathogenesis of inflammatory pain, an inflammatory pain (IP) mouse model was established and rats were treated with SIN (30 mg/kg). Behavioral tests were used to assess the MWT and TWL of the rats. ELISA assay was used to detect the level of inflammation cytokines. Western blotting and qRT-PCR were carried out to measure the related protein and mRNA expression level, respectively.

Results

We found that the MWT and TWL of the CFA-treated rats were markedly lower than that of the control rats, and they were significantly increased by SIN administration. The results suggest that IP rats had higher levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 compared with the control rats. SIN administration decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. In addition, we found that p-p65 and p-p38 expression notably decreased after SIN treatment in IP rats. Moreover, the results showed that SIN inhibited Cox-2 and PGE2 expression in IP rats.

Conclusions

The data indicate that SIN had a protective role in inflammatory pain through repressing inflammatory mediators via preventing the p38MAPK-NF-κB pathway.

Sinomenine Attenuates Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia-Induced Lung Injury by Inhibiting Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

Background

In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of sinomenine (SIN) on chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH)- induced lung injury in rats, and to explore the underlying mechanisms.

Material/Methods

To perform the investigation, a CIH rat model was established. ELISA assay was applied to detect the level of inflammatory cytokines. Oxidative stress bio-markers (MDA, SOD, and CAT) were determined in lung tissues. In addition, the expression level of NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) was analyzed by Western blotting and qRT-PCR, respectively.

Results

The results showed that compared with other groups, more obvious pulmonary pathological changes were observed in the CIH group. The level of inflammatory cytokines in the CIH group was markedly higher than that in the control and Con-S groups. Compared with the control and Con-S groups, oxidative stress was notably increased in the CIH group. Expression of Nox2 was also increased in the CIH group. The effects caused by CIH in rats were attenuated by SIN treatment.

Conclusions

SIN can reverse chronic intermittent hypoxia-induced lung injury through inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress.

Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis Using Chinese Medicinal Plants: Special Emphasis on Mechanisms of Immune Modulation

Numerous studies have examined the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. The causes of osteoporosis include endocrine factors, nutritional status, genetic factors, physical factors, and immune factors. Recent osteoimmunology studies demonstrated that the immune system and immune factors play important regulatory roles in the occurrence of osteoporosis, and people should pay more attention to the relationship between immunity and osteoporosis. Immune and bone cells are located in the bone marrow and share numerous regulatory molecules, signaling molecules, and transcription factors. Abnormal activation of the immune system alters the balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which results in an imbalance of bone remodeling and osteoporosis. The incidence of osteoporosis is also increasing with the aging of China's population, and traditional Chinese medicine has played a vital role in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis for centuries. Chinese medicinal plants possess unique advantages in the regulation of the immune system and the relationships between osteoporosis and the immune system. In this review, we provide a general overview of Chinese medicinal plants in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, focusing on immunological aspects.

Effect of sinomenine hydrochloride on radiosensitivity of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cells

Radiation therapy is one of the most important treatments for unresectable and locally advanced esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), however, the response to radiotherapy is sometimes limited by the development of radioresistance. Sinomenine hydrochloride (SH) has anticancer activity, but its effect on the radiosensitivity of ESCC is unclear. We determined the effect of SH on the radiosensitivity of ESCC cells and elucidated its potential radiosensitization mechanisms in vitro and in vivo. ESCC cells were subjected to SH and radiation, both separately and in combination. Untreated cells served as controls. The CCK-8 assay was used to evaluate cell proliferation, and the clonogenic assay to estimate radiosensitization. Flow cytometry was used to investigate cell cycle phases and cell apoptosis. Bcl-2, Bax, cyclin B1, CDK1, Ku86, Ku70, and Rad51 expression was evaluated using western blotting. In vivo, tumor xenografts were created using BALB/c nude mice. Tumor-growth inhibition was recorded, and Ki-67 and Bax expression in the tumor tissues was assessed using immunohistochemistry. SH inhibited ESCC cell growth and markedly increased their radiosensitivity by inducing G2/M phase arrest. SH combined with radiation therapy significantly increased ESCC cell apoptosis. The molecular mechanism by which SH enhanced radiosensitivity of ESCC cells was related to Bcl-2, cyclin B1, CDK1, Ku86, Ku70, and Rad51 downregulation and Bax protein expression upregulation. SH combined with radiation considerably delayed the growth of tumor xenografts in vivo. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that in the SH combined with radiation group, the expression of Bax was significantly higher while that of Ki-67 was lower than the expressions in the control groups. Taken together, our findings showed that SH could improve the sensitivity of radiation in ESCC cells by inducing G2/M phase arrest, promoting radiation-induced apoptosis and inhibiting DSB-repair pathways. SH appears to be a prospective radiosensitizer for improving the efficacy of radiotherapy for ESCC.

The effects of Salvia przewalskii total phenolic acid extract on immune complex glomerulonephritis

CONTEXT

Salvia przewalskii Maxim. (Lamiaceae) is a Chinese herbal medicine that has long been used for the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

OBJECTIVE

The study investigated the therapeutic efficacy of S. przewalskii total phenolic acid extract (SPE) on immune complex glomerulonephritis (ICG) in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty-two Wistar rats were randomized into six groups. ICG was induced in all groups except normal control group. SPE was administered intragastrically at 24 h intervals for 40 consecutive days. Urine protein (UP), total serum protein (TSP), serum albumin (SA), serum cholesterol (SC) and serum urea nitrogen (SUN) were measured one day before, on day 20 and 40 after SPE administration. On day 40 after SPE administration, the kidneys were removed and prepared into pathologic sections. In addition, kidney wet mass was measured for calculating the kidney wet mass coefficient (KWMC).

RESULTS

UP excretion was reduced significantly on day 20 after SPE administration in all three SPE groups as compared with that in medium group, and this effect was observable continuously until 40 days after SPE administration. Compared with medium group, TSP and SA were increased in all three SPE groups after 40 days treatment, while SC and SUN were decreased. KWMC was decreased significantly in 100 mg/kg SPE group after 40 days treatment compared with that in medium group. Histopathologic analyses showed that renal inflammatory infiltration and kidney intumesce were alleviated in all three SPE groups.

CONCLUSIONS

SPE may be a potential therapeutic drug for glomerulonephritis.

Immunosuppressive effect of sinomenine in an allergic rhinitis mouse model

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a chronic allergic airway disease that has become a significant global public health issue. Sinomenine (SN), a natural phytochemical found in Sinomenium acutum, showed anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effect in previous studies. In order to explore the role of SN in the treatment of AR, mice were sensitized and challenged by ovalbumin (OVA) to establish an AR mouse model. SN was administered to AR mice orally, and compared with dexamethasone treatment as a positive control. Nasal symptoms and histopathological changes were used to evaluate the effect of SN treatment in the AR mice model. In addition, the levels of anti-OVA specific IgE and various cytokines in the serum were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, while the levels of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in the mucosa were also detected by western blot analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. AR mice that received SN treatment had reduced symptom scores and milder eosinophil infiltration. The serum levels of anti-OVA specific IgE and interleukin-4 significantly decreased following SN treatment. Furthermore, TGF-β expression levels in the serum and nasal mucosa tissue in AR mice increased when compared with those in AR mice without treatment. In conclusion, SN treatment alleviated the symptoms of AR in mice and had an immunosuppressive effect on AR, which may result from the upregulation of TGF-β.

Sinomenine Provides Neuroprotection in Model of Traumatic Brain Injury via the Nrf2-ARE Pathway

The neuroprotective effect of sinomenine (SIN) has been demonstrated in several brain injury models. However, its role and molecular mechanism in traumatic brain injury (TBI) remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of SIN in the weight-drop model of TBI in male ICR mice. Mice were randomly divided into the sham and TBI groups, SIN (10 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally) or equal volume of vehicle was given at 30 min after TBI. Treatment with 30 mg/kg SIN significantly improved motor performance and alleviated cerebral edema. However, treatment with 10 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg SIN did not exhibit a better outcome. Therefore, we chose 30 mg/kg SIN for our subsequent experiments. SIN significantly increased the expression of Bcl-2 and decreased that of cleaved caspase-3, indicating that SIN is anti-apoptotic. This was confirmed by the observation that SIN-treated animals had fewer apoptotic neurons. Cortical malondialdehyde content, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were restored in the group that received SIN. Furthermore, Western blot and immunofluorescence experiments showed that SIN enhanced the translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) to the nucleus. SIN administration also significantly upregulated the expression of the downstream factors heme oxygenase 1 and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 at pre- and post-transcriptional levels. Together, these data demonstrate that SIN exerts a neuroprotective effect in a model of TBI, possibly by activating the Nrf2–antioxidant response element (ARE) pathway.

Sinomenine enhances microglia M2 polarization and attenuates inflammatory injury in intracerebral hemorrhage

Microglia polarization plays a vital role in brain inflammatory injury following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Previous studies have shown that sinomenine possesses potential immunoregulatory capabilities. However, microglia polarization's exact mechanisms in ICH remain uncertain. Therefore, we examined the role of sinomenine on microglia polarization and brain inflammation following ICH. For the experiment, autologous blood models were constructed in C57/BL6 mice. Markers of classically activated (M1) and alternatively activated (M2) microglia were detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunofluorescence, and flow cytometry. Microglial toxicity was assessed using MTT and FACS assays. In addition, the neurological deficit and cerebral water content of ICH mice were also observed. Sinomenine attenuated M1 markers while promoting M2 markers of microglia. Sinomenine also protected hippocampal neurons from indirect toxicity mediated by ICH-treated microglia. Additionally, administration of sinomenine inhibited matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 3/9 expression, cerebral water content, and neurological deficit. Therefore, sinomenine protected brain function following ICH, perhaps via M2 microglia phenotype induction and MMP 3/9 inhibition. This result suggests that sinomenine is a promising therapeutical strategy in ICH.

Sinomenine activation of Nrf2 signaling prevents hyperactive inflammation and kidney injury in a mouse model of obstructive nephropathy

Sinomenine is originally derived from medicinal herb and used preferentially in treatment of rheumatoid diseases in Far East regions. SIN has strong anti-inflammatory and immune-regulatory properties, acting mainly through inhibiting NF-kB signaling. Although the upstream target through which SIN affects NF-kB activity is unknown, evidence suggests that SIN might regulate inflammation through Nrf2 signaling. In this study we explored the role of Nrf2 in mediating SIN's anti-inflammation and kidney protection in a mouse model of obstructive nephropathy. We found that SIN is an activator of Nrf2 signaling. It markedly increased Nrf2 protein level, Nrf2 nuclear translocation, Nef2 transcription capacity, and the downstream protein expression. We further demonstrated that SIN activation of Nrf2 is likely due to its repression of the Nrf2 inhibitor Keap1 since it drastically reduced Keap1 protein through the PKC-sensitive ubiquitination-proteasomal degradation. SIN treatment of nephropathy mice effectively reduced the kidney damage and inflammatory responses, balanced renal oxidative stress, and improved the pathological protein expression in an Nrf2 dependent manner. In addition, SIN also Nrf2-dependently modulated macrophage M1/M2 polarization and inhibited the IkBα phosphorylation and NF-kB nuclear translocation, hence revealing an important upstream event that contributed to its anti-inflammation and tissue protection. Taken together our study has identified a novel pathway through which SIN exerts its anti-inflammation and renal protective functions, and provided a molecular basis for SIN potential applications in the treatment of kidney and other inflammatory disorders.

Changes in blood CD4+T and CD8+T lymphocytes in stressed rats pretreated chronically with desipramine are more pronounced after chronic open field stress challenge

The present study examines the influence of a chronic (14 consecutive days) desipramine (10mg/kg i.p.) pretreatment by itself vs. after chronic (7 consecutive day) open-field (OF) on immune system alterations in response to acute (30 min) OF in Wistar rats (n=60). Opposing to the effect of desipramine injected alone, the combined pretreatment after chronic OF challenge exerts suppressive effects on peripheral blood T/B, CD4(+)T-helper/inducer and CD8(+)T-cytotoxic/suppressor but not NK cell number, decreased interferon-γ/interleukin-10 ratio and thymus weight in the stressed rats. It suggests that chronic stress exposure is important for the immunomodulatory effects of pretreatment with antidepressants.

Optimization and evaluation of pluronic lecithin organogels as a transdermal delivery vehicle for sinomenine

The purpose of the present study was to prepare and optimize sinomenine (SIN) pluronic lecithin organogels system (PLO), and to evaluate the permeability of the optimized PLO in vitro and in vivo. Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the PLO and the optimized formulation was pluronic F127 of 19.61%, lecithin of 3.60% and SIN of 1.27%. The formulation was evaluated its skin permeation and drug deposition both in vitro and in vivo compared with gel. Permeation and deposition studies of PLO were carried out with Franz diffusion cells in vitro and with microdialysis in vivo. In vitro studies, permeation rate (Jss) of SIN from PLO was 146.55 ± 2.93 μg/cm(2)/h, significantly higher than that of gel (120.39 μg/cm(2)/h) and the amount of SIN deposited in skin from the PLO was 10.08 ± 0.86 μg/cm(2), significantly larger than that from gel (6.01 ± 0.04 μg/cm(2)). In vivo skin microdialysis studies showed that the maximum concentration (Cmax) of SIN from PLO in "permeation study" and "drug-deposition study" were 150.27 ± 20.85 μg/ml and 67.95 μg/ml, respectively, both significantly higher than that of SIN from gel (29.66 and 6.73 μg/ml). The results recommend that PLO can be used as an advantageous transdermal delivery vehicle to enhance the permeation and skin deposition of SIN.

Vascular normalization induced by sinomenine hydrochloride results in suppressed mammary tumor growth and metastasis

Solid tumor vasculature is characterized by structural and functional abnormality and results in a hostile tumor microenvironment that mediates several deleterious aspects of tumor behavior. Sinomenine is an alkaloid extracted from the Chinese medicinal plant, Sinomenium acutum, which has been utilized to treat rheumatism in China for over 2000 years. Though sinomenine has been demonstrated to mediate a wide range of pharmacological actions, few studies have focused on its effect on tumor vasculature. We showed here that intraperitoneally administration of 100 mg/kg sinomenine hydrochloride (SH, the hydrochloride chemical form of sinomenine) in two orthotopic mouse breast cancer models for 14 days, delayed mammary tumor growth and decreased metastasis by inducing vascular maturity and enhancing tumor perfusion, while improving chemotherapy and tumor immunity. The effects of SH on tumor vessels were caused in part by its capability to restore the balance between pro-angiogenic factor (bFGF) and anti-angiogenic factor (PF4). However 200 mg/kg SH didn't exhibit the similar inhibitory effect on tumor progression due to the immunosuppressive microenvironment caused by excessive vessel pruning, G-CSF upregulation, and GM-CSF downregulation. Altogether, our findings suggest that SH induced vasculature normalization contributes to its anti-tumor and anti-metastasis effect on breast cancer at certain dosage.

Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Stephania rotunda Lour

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Stephania rotunda Lour. (Menispermaceae) is an important traditional medicinal plant that is grown in Southeast Asia. The stems, leaves, and tubers have been used in the Cambodian, Lao, Indian and Vietnamese folk medicine systems for years to treat a wide range of ailments, including asthma, headache, fever, and diarrhoea.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To provide an up-to-date, comprehensive overview and analysis of the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Stephania rotunda for its potential benefits in human health, as well as to assess the scientific evidence of traditional use and provide a basis for future research directions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Peer-reviewed articles on Stephania rotunda were acquired via an electronic search of the major scientific databases (Pubmed, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect). Data were collected from scientific journals, theses, and books.

RESULTS

The traditional uses of Stephania rotunda were recorded in countries throughout Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and India). Different parts of Stephania rotunda were used in traditional medicine to treat about twenty health disorders. Phytochemical analyses identified forty alkaloids. The roots primarily contain l-tetrahydropalmatine (l-THP), whereas the tubers contain cepharanthine and xylopinine. Furthermore, the chemical composition differs from one region to another and according to the harvest period. The alkaloids exhibited approximately ten different pharmacological activities. The main pharmacological activities of Stephania rotunda alkaloids are antiplasmodial, anticancer, and immunomodulatory effects. Sinomenine, cepharanthine, and l-stepholidine are the most promising components and have been tested in humans. The pharmacokinetic parameters have been studied for seven compounds, including the three most promising compounds. The toxicity has been evaluated for liriodenine, roemerine, cycleanine, l-tetrahydropalmatine, and oxostephanine.

CONCLUSION

Stephania rotunda is traditionally used for the treatment of a wide range of ailments. Pharmacological investigations have validated different uses of Stephania rotunda in folk medicine. The present review highlights the three most promising compounds of Stephania rotunda, which could constitute potential leads in various medicinal fields, including malaria and cancer.

Analgesic effect of sinomenine in rodents after inflammation and nerve injury

Sinomenine is an alkaloid originally isolated from the root of the plant Sinomenium acutum. It is used in traditional medicine in China to treat rheumatic arthritis. In the present study, we evaluated the potential antinociceptive effects of sinomenine in rodents with nociceptive, inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In normal rats and mice, systemic sinomenine produced moderate antinociceptive effect in the hot plate and tail flick tests. Sinomenine also exerted analgesic effects on mechanical and heat hypersensitivity in mice after carrageenan induced inflammation. Finally, sinomenine effectively alleviated mechanical and cold allodynia in rats and mice after injury to peripheral nerve or spinal cord. The analgesic effect of sinomenine is not associated with side effects and is not reversed by the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone. Our results showed that sinomenine has a wide spectrum analgesic effect in rodent models of nociceptive, inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

Sinomenine protects against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice via adenosine A(2A) receptor signaling

Sinomenine (SIN) is a bioactive alkaloid extracted from the Chinese medicinal plant Sinomenium acutum, which is widely used in the clinical treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, its role in acute lung injury (ALI) is unclear. In this study, we investigate the role of SIN in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI in mice. After ALI, lung water content and histological signs of pulmonary injury were attenuated, whereas the PaO₂/FIO₂ (P/F) ratios were elevated significantly in the mice pretreated with SIN. Additionally, SIN markedly inhibited inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and IL-1β expression levels as well as neutrophil infiltration in the lung tissues of the mice. Microarray analysis and real-time PCR showed that SIN treatment upregulated adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AR) expression, and the protective effect of SIN was abolished in A_2AR knockout mice. Further investigation in isolated mouse neutrophils confirmed the upregulation of A_2AR by SIN and showed that A_2AR-cAMP-PKA signaling was involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of SIN. Taken together, these findings demonstrate an A_2AR-associated anti-inflammatory effect and the protective role of SIN in ALI, which suggests a potential novel approach to treat ALI.

Expression of Th1 and Th2 cytokine-associated transcription factors, T-bet and GATA-3, in the eutopic endometrium of women with endometriosis

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the expression of T-box expressed in T cells (T-bet) and GATA binding protein 3 (GATA-3) in the eutopic endometrium from women with endometriosis. Endometrial tissues were collected from 20 women with laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis and 20 women without endometriosis. T-bet and GATA-3 expression was measured by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. Eutopic endometrial tissues from patients with endometriosis expressed lower levels of T-bet mRNA and high levels of GATA-3 mRNA, leading to a significant lower T-bet/GATA-3 mRNA ratio (P<0.05). Western blot analysis showed that the T-bet/GATA-3 protein ratio in endometriosis group was also statistically lower than that in the control group (P<0.05). These results suggested that T-bet and GATA-3 may act as cytokine regulatory genes, and the Th2-specific transcription factor, GATA-3, probably plays an essential role in the immune response and the development of endometriosis.

Sinomenine hydrochloride inhibits human hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth in vitro and in vivo: involvement of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. However, therapies against HCC to date have not been completely effective. Sinomenine hydrochloride (SH), an anti‑arthritis drug applied in clinical practice, has been reported to have in vitro anti‑neoplastic activity in various cancer cells. Whether SH inhibits HCC remains unknown. For this purpose, in this study, MTT assay was used to determine cell growth. Flow cytometry, Hoechst staining, DNA fragmentation, western blot analysis, immunohistochemisty and TUNEL staining were performed to investigate the mechanisms involved. The in vivo activity of SH was determined using a mouse xenograft model. SH inhibited the growth of various types of human HCC cells in vitro. We found that SH promoted cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase and sub‑G1 formation, associated with the increased p21/WAF1/Cip1 expression. Additionally, SH induced caspase‑dependent apoptosis, which involved the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, the increased release of cytochrome c and Omi/HtrA2 from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, the downregulation of Bcl‑2 and the upregulation of Bax, the activation of a caspase cascade (caspase‑8, -10, -9 and -3) and PARP, as well as the decreased expression of survivin. The SH‑suppressed growth of human HCC xenografts in vivo occurred due to the decrease in proliferation and the induction of apoptosis, implicating the activation of caspase‑3, the upregulation of p21 and the downregulation of survivin. These findings suggest that SH exhibits anticancer efficacy in vitro and in vivo involving cell cycle and caspase‑dependent apoptosis and may serve as a potential drug candidate against HCC.