Anti-inflammatory activities of phospholipase C inhibitor U73122: Inhibition of monocyte-to-macrophage transformation and LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression

Phospholipase C-γ as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Graves' Orbitopathy

BACKGRUOUND

Phospholipase C-γ (PLC-γ) plays a crucial role in immune responses and is related to the pathogenesis of various inflammatory disorders. In this study, we investigated the role of PLC-γ and the therapeutic effect of the PLC-specific inhibitor U73122 using orbital fibroblasts from patients with Graves' orbitopathy (GO).

METHODS

The expression of phospholipase C gamma 1 (PLCG1) and phospholipase C gamma 2 (PLCG2) was evaluated using polymerase chain reaction in GO and normal orbital tissues/fibroblasts. The primary cultures of orbital fibroblasts were treated with non-toxic concentrations of U73122 with or without interleukin (IL)-1β to determine its therapeutic efficacy. The proinflammatory cytokine levels and activation of downstream signaling molecules were determined using Western blotting.

RESULTS

PLCG1 and PLCG2 mRNA expression was significantly higher in GO orbital tissues than in controls (P<0.05). PLCG1 and PLCG2 mRNA expression was significantly increased (P<0.05) in IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and a cluster of differentiation 40 ligand-stimulated GO fibroblasts. U73122 significantly inhibited the IL-1β-induced expression of proinflammatory molecules, including IL-6, IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, cyclooxygenase-2, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) and p38 (p-p38) kinase in GO fibroblasts, whereas it inhibited IL-6, IL-8, and ICAM-1, and p-Akt and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK) in normal fibroblasts (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

PLC-γ-inhibiting U73122 suppressed the production of proinflammatory cytokines and the phosphorylation of Akt and p38 kinase in GO fibroblasts. This study indicates the implications of PLC-γ in GO pathogenesis and its potential as a therapeutic target for GO.

Associating bovine herpesvirus 1 envelope glycoprotein gD with activated phospho-PLC-γ1(S1248)

Phospholipase C gamma 1 (PLC-γ1) may locate at distinct subcellular locations, such as cytosol, plasma membrane, and nucleus for varied biological functions. Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) productive infection activates PLC-γ1 signaling, as demonstrated by increased protein levels of phosphorylated-PLC-γ1 at Ser1248 [p-PLC-γ1(S1248)], which benefits virus productive infection. Here, for the first time, we reported that Golgi apparatus also contains activated p-PLC-γ1(S1248). And BoHV-1 productive infection at later stages (24 hpi) increased the accumulation of p-PLC-γ1(S1248) in the Golgi apparatus, where p-PLC-γ1(S1248) forms highlighted puncta observed via a confocal microscope. Coimmunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that the Golgi p-PLC-γ1(S1248) is specifically associated with the viral protein gD but not gC. In addition, we found that p-PLC-γ1(S1248) is consistently associated with both the plasma membrane-associated virions and the released virions. When the virus-infected cells were treated with PLC-γ1-specific inhibitor, U73122, for a short duration of 4 hours prior to the endpoint of virus infection, we found that the viral protein gD was trapped in the Golgi apparatus, suggesting that the PLC-γ1 signaling may facilitate trafficking of progeny virions out of this organelle. These findings provide a novel insight into the interplay between PLC-γ1 signaling and BoHV-1 replication. IMPORTANCE Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) productive infection increases protein levels of phosphorylated-phospholipase C gamma 1 at Ser1248 [p-PLC-γ1(S1248)]. However, whether it causes any variations to p-PLC-γ1(S1248) localization is not well understood. Here, for the first time, we found that partial p-PLC-γ1(S1248) is residing in the Golgi apparatus, where the accumulation is enhanced by virus infection. p-PLC-γ1(S1248) is consistently associated with virions, partially via binding to gD, in both the Golgi apparatus and cytoplasm membranes. Surprisingly, it also associates with the released virions. Of note, this is the first evidenced BoHV-1 virion-bound host protein. It seems that p-PLC-γ1(S1248) works as an escort during trafficking of progeny virions out of Golgi apparatus to the plasma membranes as well as releasing outside of the cell membranes. Furthermore, we showed that the activated p-PLC-γ1(S1248) is potentially implicated in the transport of virions out of Golgi apparatus, which may represent a novel mechanism to regulate virus productive infection.

Epigenome-wide DNA methylation in leukocytes and toenail metals: The normative aging study

BACKGROUND

Environmental metal exposures have been associated with multiple deleterious health endpoints. DNA methylation (DNAm) may provide insight into the mechanisms underlying these relationships. Toenail metals are non-invasive biomarkers, reflecting a medium-term time exposure window.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined variation in leukocyte DNAm and toenail arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), and mercury (Hg) among elderly men in the Normative Aging Study, a longitudinal cohort.

METHODS

We repeatedly collected samples of blood and toenail clippings. We measured DNAm in leukocytes with the Illumina HumanMethylation450 K BeadChip. We first performed median regression to evaluate the effects of each individual toenail metal on DNAm at three levels: individual cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) sites, regions, and pathways. Then, we applied a Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) to assess the joint and individual effects of metal mixtures on DNAm. Significant CpGs were identified using a multiple testing correction based on the independent degrees of freedom approach for correlated outcomes. The approach considers the effective degrees of freedom in the DNAm data using the principal components that explain >95% variation of the data.

RESULTS

We included 564 subjects (754 visits) between 1999 and 2013. The numbers of significantly differentially methylated CpG sites, regions, and pathways varied by metals. For example, we found six significant pathways for As, three for Cd, and one for Mn. The As-associated pathways were associated with cancer (e.g., skin cancer) and cardiovascular disease, whereas the Cd-associated pathways were related to lung cancer. Metal mixtures were also associated with 47 significant CpG sites, as well as pathways, mainly related to cancer and cardiovascular disease.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides an approach to understanding the potential epigenetic mechanisms underlying observed relations between toenail metals and adverse health endpoints.

Phospholipase C-γ1 potentially facilitates subcellular localization of activated β-catenin, p-β-catenin(S552), during bovine herpesvirus 1 productive infection in MDBK cells

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) is a significant risk factor for the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC), a severe disease causing great economic losses to the cattle industry worldwide. Previous studies have reported that both phospholipase C-γ1 (PLC-γ1) and β-catenin are activated during BoHV-1 infection for efficient replication. However, the interplay between PLC-γ1 and β-catenin as a consequence of virus infection remains to be elucidated. Here, we reported that PLC-γ1 interacted with β-catenin, which was enhanced following virus infection. PLC-γ1-specific inhibitor, U73122, significantly reduced the mRNA levels of β-catenin in BoHV-1-infected cells; however, the steady-state protein levels were not affected due to the virus infection. Interestingly, the treatment of virus-infected cells with U73122 reduced the accumulation of activated β-catenin [p-β-catenin(S552)] in fractions of the cytoplasmic membrane as that observed with the treatment of methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD), which can disrupt cytoplasmic membrane structure via sequestering cholesterol. Nucleus accumulation of p-β-catenin(S552) was increased following U73122 treatment in virus-infected cells. In addition, the association of p-β-catenin(S552) with cytoplasmic membrane induced by the virus infection was significantly disrupted by the treatment of U73122 and MβCD. These data indicated that the PLC-γ1 signaling is potentially involved in the regulation of β-catenin signaling stimulated by BoHV-1 infection partially via affecting the subcellular localization of p-β-catenin(S552).

TAS2R16 Activation Suppresses LPS-Induced Cytokine Expression in Human Gingival Fibroblasts

Sustained and non-resolved inflammation is a characteristic of periodontitis. Upon acute inflammation, gingival fibroblasts release cytokines to recruit immune cells to counter environmental stimuli. The intricate regulation of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, such as NF-κB, is necessary to maintain periodontal homeostasis. Nonetheless, how inflammation is resolved has not yet been elucidated. In this study, 22 subtypes of taste receptor family 2 (TAS2Rs), as well as the downstream machineries of Gα-gustducin and phospholipase C-β2 (PLCβ2), were identified in human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs). Various bitter agonists could induce an intensive cytosolic Ca²⁺ response in HGFs. More importantly, TAS2R16 was expressed at a relatively high level, and its agonist, salicin, showed robust Ca²⁺ evocative effects in HGFs. Activation of TAS2R16 signaling by salicin inhibited the release of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, at least in part, by repressing LPS-induced intracellular cAMP elevation and NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation in HGFs. These findings indicate that TAS2Rs activation in HGFs may mediate endogenous pro-inflammation resolution by antagonizing NF-κB signaling, providing a novel paradigm and treatment target for the better management of periodontitis.

Recent advances in understanding the molecular role of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C gamma 1 as an emerging onco-driver and novel therapeutic target in human carcinogenesis

Phosphoinositide metabolism is crucial intracellular signaling system that regulates a plethora of biological functions including mitogenesis, cell proliferation and division. Phospholipase C gamma 1 (PLCγ1) which belongs to phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) family, is activated by many extracellular stimuli including hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors and modulates several cellular and physiological functions necessary for tumorigenesis such as cell survival, migration, invasion and angiogenesis by generating inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) via hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2). Cancer remains as a leading cause of global mortality and aberrant expression and regulation of PLCγ1 is linked to a plethora of deadly human cancers including carcinomas of the breast, lung, pancreas, stomach, prostate and ovary. Although PLCγ1 cross-talks with many onco-drivers and signaling circuits including PI3K, AKT, HIF1-α and RAF/MEK/ERK cascade, its precise role in carcinogenesis is not completely understood. This review comprehensively discussed the status quo of this ubiquitously expressed phospholipase as a tumor driver and highlighted its significance as a novel therapeutic target in cancer. Furthermore, we have highlighted the significance of somatic driver mutations in PLCG1 gene and molecular roles of PLCγ1 in several major human cancers, a knowledgebase that can be utilized to develop novel, isoform-specific small molecule inhibitors of PLCγ1.

Update on Calcium Signaling in Cystic Fibrosis Lung Disease

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene, which causes multifunctional defects that preferentially affect the airways. Abnormal viscosity of mucus secretions, persistent pathogen infections, hyperinflammation, and lung tissue damage compose the classical pathological manifestation referred to as CF lung disease. Among the multifunctional defects associated with defective CFTR, increasing evidence supports the relevant role of perturbed calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling in the pathophysiology of CF lung disease. The Ca²⁺ ion is a critical player in cell functioning and survival. Its intracellular homeostasis is maintained by a fine balance between channels, transporters, and exchangers, mediating the influx and efflux of the ion across the plasma membrane and the intracellular organelles. An abnormal Ca²⁺ profile has been observed in CF cells, including airway epithelial and immune cells, with heavy repercussions on cell function, viability, and susceptibility to pathogens, contributing to proinflammatory overstimulation, organelle dysfunction, oxidative stress, and excessive cytokines release in CF lung. This review discusses the role of Ca²⁺ signaling in CF and how its dysregulation in airway epithelial and immune cells contributes to hyperinflammation in the CF lung. Finally, we provide an outlook on the therapeutic options that target the Ca²⁺ signaling to treat the CF lung disease.

Ca2+ movement and cytotoxicity induced by the pyrethroid pesticide bifenthrin in human prostate cancer cells

Bifenthrin, a commonly used pyrethroid pesticide, evokes various toxicological effects in different models. However, the effect of bifenthrin on cytosolic-free Ca2+ level ([Ca2+] i) and cytotoxicity in human prostate cancer cells is unclear. This study examined whether bifenthrin altered Ca2+ homeostasis and cell viability in PC3 human prostate cancer cells. [Ca2+] i in suspended cells were measured using the fluorescent Ca2+-sensitive dye fura-2. Cell viability was examined by 4-[3-[4-lodophenyl]-2-4(4-nitrophenyl)-2H-5-tetrazolio-1,3-benzene disulfonate] water soluble tetrazolium-1 assay. Bifenthrin (100–400 μM) concentration-dependently induced [Ca2+] i rises. Ca2+ removal reduced the signal by approximately 30%. In Ca2+-free medium, treatment with the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump inhibitor 2,5-di-tert-butylhydroquinone (BHQ) abolished bifenthrin-evoked [Ca2+] i rises. Conversely, treatment with bifenthrin abolished BHQ-evoked [Ca2+] i rises. Inhibition of phospholipase C (PLC) with U73122 significantly inhibited bifenthrin-induced [Ca2+] i rises. Mn2+ has been shown to enter cells through similar mechanisms as Ca2+ but quenches fura-2 fluorescence at all excitation wavelengths. Bifenthrin (400 μM)-induced Mn2+ influx implicates that Ca2+ entry occurred. Bifenthrin-induced Ca2+ entry was inhibited by 30% by protein kinase C (PKC) activator (phorbol 12-myristate 13 acetate) and inhibitor (GF109203X) and three inhibitors of store-operated Ca2+ channels: nifedipine, econazole, and SKF96365. Bifenthrin at 175–275 μM decreased cell viability, which was not reversed by pretreatment with the Ca2+ chelator 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy) ethane- N, N, N′, N′-tetra acetic acid-acetoxymethyl ester. Together, in PC3 cells, bifenthrin-induced [Ca2+] i rises by evoking PLC-dependent Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum and Ca2+ entry via PKC-sensitive store-operated Ca2+ entry. Bifenthrin also caused Ca2+-independent cell death.

A 113-amino-acid truncation at the NS1 C-terminus is a determinant for viral replication of H5N6 avian influenza virus in vitro and in vivo

Virulence of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (AIV) is determined by multiple genes and their encoded proteins. In particular, the nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) of viruses is a multifunctional protein that plays an important role in type I interferon (IFN) antagonism, pathogenicity, and determining viral host range. Naturally-occurring truncation or mutation of NS1 during virus evolution attenuates viral replication and pathogenicity, but the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain poorly understood. In the present study, we rescued an H5N6 AIV harboring a 113-amino-acid (aa) truncated NS1 at the C-terminus that had previously naturally occurred in an H3N8 equine influenza virus (designated as rHN109 NS1/112). The replication and pathogenicity of the rescued and parental viruses were then assessed in vitro in cells and in vivo in chickens and mice. Replication of rHN109 NS1/112 virus was significantly attenuated in various cells compared to its parental virus. The attenuation of rHN109 NS1/112 virus was subsequently clarified by investigating the effects on IFN and apoptosis signaling pathways via multiple experiments. The results indicated that the 113-aa truncation of NS1 impairs viral inhibition of IFN production and enhances cellular apoptosis in avian and mammalian cells. Animal studies further indicated that replication of the rHN109 NS1/112 virus is remarkably attenuated in chickens. The results of this study improve our understanding of C-terminal region function for NS1 proteins of influenza viruses.

The Role of Phospholipase C Signaling in Macrophage-Mediated Inflammatory Response

Macrophages are crucial members of the mononuclear phagocyte system essential to protect the host from invading pathogens and are central to the inflammatory response with their ability to acquire specialized phenotypes of inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) and to produce a pool of inflammatory mediators. Equipped with a broad range of receptors, such as Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), CD14, and Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs), macrophages can efficiently recognize and phagocytize invading pathogens and secrete cytokines by triggering various secondary signaling pathways. Phospholipase C (PLC) is a family of enzymes that hydrolyze phospholipids, the most significant of which is phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2]. Cleavage at the internal phosphate ester generates two second messengers, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), both of which mediate in diverse cellular functions including the inflammatory response. Recent studies have shown that some PLC isoforms are involved in multiple stages in TLR4-, CD14-, and FcγRs-mediated activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), all of which are associated with the regulation of the inflammatory response. Therefore, secondary signaling by PLC is implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous inflammatory diseases. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge on how PLC signaling regulates the macrophage-mediated inflammatory response.

The role of phospholipase C signaling in bovine herpesvirus 1 infection

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) infection enhanced the generation of inflammatory mediator reactive oxidative species (ROS) and stimulated MAPK signaling that are highly possibly related to virus induced inflammation. In this study, for the first time we show that BoHV-1 infection manipulated phospholipase C (PLC) signaling, as demonstrated by the activation of PLCγ-1 at both early stages [at 0.5 h post-infection (hpi)] and late stages (4-12 hpi) during the virus infection of MDBK cells. Viral entry, and de novo protein expression and/or DNA replication were potentially responsible for the activation of PLCγ-1 signaling. PLC signaling inhibitors of both U73122 and edelfosine significantly inhibited BoHV-1 replication in both bovine kidney cells (MDBK) and rabbit skin cells (RS-1) in a dose-dependent manner by affecting the virus entry stage(s). In addition, the activation of Erk1/2 and p38MAPK signaling, and the enhanced generation of ROS by BoHV-1 infection were obviously ameliorated by chemical inhibition of PLC signaling, implying the requirement of PLC signaling in ROS production and these MAPK pathway activation. These results suggest that the activation of PLC signaling is a potential pathogenic mechanism for BoHV-1 infection.

Macrophages and Phospholipases at the Intersection between Inflammation and the Pathogenesis of HIV-1 Infection

Persistent low grade immune activation and chronic inflammation are nowadays considered main driving forces of the progressive immunologic failure in effective antiretroviral therapy treated HIV-1 infected individuals. Among the factors contributing to this phenomenon, microbial translocation has emerged as a key driver of persistent immune activation. Indeed, the rapid depletion of gastrointestinal CD4⁺ T lymphocytes occurring during the early phases of infection leads to a deterioration of the gut epithelium followed by the translocation of microbial products into the systemic circulation and the subsequent activation of innate immunity. In this context, monocytes/macrophages are increasingly recognized as an important source of inflammation, linked to HIV-1 disease progression and to non-AIDS complications, such as cardiovascular disease and neurocognitive decline, which are currently main challenges in treated patients. Lipid signaling plays a central role in modulating monocyte/macrophage activation, immune functions and inflammatory responses. Phospholipase-mediated phospholipid hydrolysis leads to the production of lipid mediators or second messengers that affect signal transduction, thus regulating a variety of physiologic and pathophysiologic processes. In this review, we discuss the contribution of phospholipases to monocyte/macrophage activation in the context of HIV-1 infection, focusing on their involvement in virus-associated chronic inflammation and co-morbidities.