Oxymatrine attenuates CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis via modulation of TLR4-dependent inflammatory and TGF-β1 signaling pathways

C23 ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in mice

BACKGROUND

C23, an oligo-peptide derived from cold-inducible RNA-binding protein (CIRP), has been reported to inhibit tissue inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis by binding to the CIRP receptor; however, there are few reports on its role in liver fibrosis and the underlying mechanism is unknown.

AIM

To explore whether C23 plays a significant role in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis.

METHODS

CCl4 was injected for 6 weeks to induce liver fibrosis and C23 was used beginning in the second week. Masson and Sirius red staining were used to examine changes in fiber levels. Inflammatory factors in the liver were detected and changes in α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen I expression were detected via immunohistochemical staining to evaluate the activation of hematopoietic stellate cells (HSCs). Western blotting was used to detect the activation status of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β)/Smad3 axis after C23 treatment.

RESULTS

CCl4 successfully induced liver fibrosis in mice, while tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL (interleukin)-1β, and IL-6 levels increased significantly and the IL-10 level decreased significantly. Interestingly, C23 inhibited this process. On the other hand, C23 significantly inhibited the activation of HSCs induced by CCl4, which inhibited the expression of α-SMA and the synthesis of collagen I. In terms of mechanism, C23 can block Smad3 phosphorylation significantly and inhibits TGF-β/Smad3 pathway activation, thereby improving liver injury caused by CCl4.

CONCLUSION

C23 may block TGF-β/Smad3 axis activation, inhibit the expression of inflammatory factors, and inhibit the activation of HSCs induced by CCl4, alleviating liver fibrosis.

A proteomics-based study of the mechanism of oxymatrine to ameliorate hepatic fibrosis in mice

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the protective effect of oxymatrine (OMT) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice and explored its possible targets and signaling pathways.

METHODS

Male BALB/c mice were randomly divided into blank control, model, positive drug (silymarin), and OMT administration groups, respectively, with 10 mice in each group. Hepatic fibrosis was induced in mice using CCl4 and the corresponding drug intervention was given. After the final administration, ultrasonography tests, blood tests, and analysis of liver differential proteins using tandem mass tag labeling and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry were performed.

RESULTS

OMT intervention ameliorated CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice, significantly reduced serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase levels, down-regulated the expression of fibrosis factors, such as type IV collagen IV, laminin, type III procollagen III, and alpha-smooth muscle actin, and improved liver function. The results of the proteomic analysis showed that the intervention of OMT significantly down-regulated 130 out of 440 up-regulated proteins and up-regulated 70 out of 294 down-regulated proteins, primarily involving the transient receptor potential (TRP) signaling pathway, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) signaling pathway, and the metabolic pathway of arachidonic acid. The main differential proteins involved were Cyp2c37, SCP-2, and Tbxas1. In addition, OMT intervention significantly reversed the expression of sterol carrier protein-2 (SCP2) and upregulated the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, Cyp2c37, and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 proteins.

CONCLUSION

OMT inhibited the proliferative capacity of hepatic stellate cells, induced apoptotic properties, and suppressed the development of fibrosis by elevating Cyp2c37/TRP signaling axis activity and upregulating PPAR pathway activity by inhibiting SCP2.

HMGB1 as an extracellular pro-inflammatory cytokine: Implications for drug-induced organic damage

Drug-induced organic damage encompasses various intricate mechanisms, wherein HMGB1, a non-histone chromosome-binding protein, assumes a significant role as a pivotal hub gene. The regulatory functions of HMGB1 within the nucleus and extracellular milieu are interlinked. HMGB1 exerts a crucial regulatory influence on key biological processes including cell survival, inflammatory regulation, and immune response. HMGB1 can be released extracellularly from the cell during these processes, where it functions as a pro-inflammation cytokine. HMGB1 interacts with multiple cell membrane receptors, primarily Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), to stimulate immune cells and trigger inflammatory response. The excessive or uncontrolled HMGB1 release leads to heightened inflammatory responses and cellular demise, instigating inflammatory damage or exacerbating inflammation and cellular demise in different diseases. Therefore, a thorough review on the significance of HMGB1 in drug-induced organic damage is highly important for the advancement of pharmaceuticals, ensuring their effectiveness and safety in treating inflammation as well as immune-related diseases. In this review, we initially outline the characteristics and functions of HMGB1, emphasizing their relevance in disease pathology. Then, we comprehensively summarize the prospect of HMGB1 as a promising therapeutic target for treating drug-induced toxicity. Lastly, we discuss major challenges and propose potential avenues for advancing the development of HMGB1-based therapeutics.

Mechanism of oxymatrine in the treatment of cryptosporidiosis through TNF/NF-κB signaling pathway based on network pharmacology and experimental validation

Cryptosporidiosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease. Oxymatrine, an alkaloid extracted and isolated from the plant bitter ginseng, has been reported to have therapeutic effects on cryptosporidiosis. However, the underlying mechanism of its action remains unclear. In this study, we utilized network pharmacology and experimental validation to investigate the mechanism of oxymatrine in the treatment of cryptosporidiosis. First, the potential targets of drugs and diseases were predicted by TCMSP, Gene Cards, and other databases. Following the intersection of drug-disease targets, the DAVID database was used to implement the enrichment analysis of GO functions and KEGG pathways, and then the network diagram of "intersected target-KEGG" relationship was constructed. Autodock 4.2.6 software was used to carry out the molecular docking of core targets to drug components. Based on the establishment of a mouse model of cryptosporidiosis, the validity of the targets in the TNF/NF-κB signaling pathway was confirmed using Western blot analysis and Quantitative Rea-ltime-PCR. A total of 41 intersectional targets of oxymatrine and Cryptosporidium were generated from the results, and five core targets were screened out by network analysis, including RELA, AKT1, ESR1, TNF, and CASP3. The enrichment analysis showed that oxymatrine could regulate multiple gene targets, mediate TNF, Apoptpsis, IL-17, NF-κB and other signaling pathways. Molecular docking experiments revealed that oxymatrine was tightly bound to core targets with stable conformation. Furthermore, we found through animal experiments that oxymatrine could regulate the mRNA and protein expression of IL-6, NF-κB, and TNF-α in the intestinal tissues of post-infected mice through the TNF/NF-κB signaling pathway. Therefore, it can be concluded that oxymatrine can regulate the inflammatory factors TNF-α, NF-κB, and IL-6 through the TNF/NF-κB signaling pathway for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis. This prediction has also been validated by network pharmacology and animal experiments.

Natural products - Dawn of keloid treatment

Keloids are prevalent pathological scars, often leading to cosmetic deformities and hindering joint mobility.They cause discomfort, including burning and itching, while gradually expanding and potentially posing a risk of cancer.Developing effective drugs and treatments for keloids has been a persistent challenge in the medical field. Natural products are an important source of innovative drugs and a breakthrough for many knotty disease.Herein, keywords of "natural, plant, compound, extract" were combined with "keloid" and searched in PubMed and Google Scholar, respectively. A total of 32 natural products as well as 9 extracts possessing the potential for treating keloids were ultimately identified.Current research in this field faces a significant challenge due to the lack of suitable animal models, resulting in a predominant reliance on in vitro studies.In vivo and clinical studies are notably scarce as a result.Moreover, there is a notable deficiency in research focusing on the role of nutrients in keloid formation and treatment.The appropriate dosage form (oral, topical, injectable) is crucial for the development of natural product drugs. Finally, the conclusion was hereby made that natural products, when used as adjuncts to other treatments, hold significant potential in the management of keloids.By summarizing the natural products and elucidating their mechanisms in keloid treatment, the present study aims to stimulate further discoveries and research in drug development for effectively addressing this challenging condition.

Oxymatrine attenuates sepsis-induced inflammation and organ injury via inhibition of HMGB1/RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction that endangers patient lives and is caused by an imbalance in the host defense against infection. Sepsis continues to be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in critically sick patients. Oxymatrine (OMT), a quinolizidine alkaloid derived from the traditional Chinese herb Sophora flavescens Aiton, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects on a number of inflammatory illnesses according to research. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of OMT on sepsis and explore the underlying mechanisms. We differentiated THP-1 cells into THP-1 macrophages and studied the anti-inflammatory mechanism of OMT in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced THP-1 macrophage sepsis model. Activation of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), as well as NF-κB, was assessed by Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence staining. ELISA was used to measure the levels of inflammatory factors. We found that OMT significantly inhibited HMGB1-mediated RAGE/NF-κB activation and downstream inflammatory cytokine production in response to LPS stimulation. Finally, an in vivo experiment was performed on septic mice to further study the effect of OMT on injured organs. The animal experiments showed that OMT significantly inhibited HMGB1-mediated RAGE/NF-κB activation, protected against the inflammatory response and organ injury induced by CLP, and prolonged the survival rate of septic mice. Herein, we provide evidence that OMT exerts a significant therapeutic effect on sepsis by inhibiting the HMGB1/RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Study on Oxymatrine-Based Research from 2001 to 2022: A Bibliometric Analysis

Oxymatrine is a quinolizidine alkaloid mainly derived from Kushen; it possesses various therapeutic effects, such as organ- and tissue-protective, anticancer, and antiviral effects. The research directions for oxymatrine remain broad. In order to explore the overall status of oxymatrine-based research, we carried out a bibliometric analysis to summarize the oxymatrine-based, English-written studies published in the past 22 years. In total, 267 studies were included, most of which were original. The number of annual studies slowly increased with some fluctuations. Other than China, 11 different countries conducted studies on oxymatrine; the variety in the country of origin of these publications is presented as a recently increasing trend. Many affiliates and researchers have participated in oxymatrine-based research. Various treatment mechanisms involving different oxymatrine pathways have led to research in a wide range of fields, being published in numerous journals. Two particularly popular research fields related to oxymatrine involved anticancer and anti-inflammation. From this research, we concluded that with increasing and continuous in-depth studies, more therapeutic effects and mechanisms will be elucidated, and oxymatrine may present as a viable option for the treatment of additional diseases.

Recent Advances in Research on Active Compounds Against Hepatic Fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Almost all chronic liver diseases cause fibrosis, which can lead to cirrhosis and eventually liver cancer. Liver fibrosis is now considered to be a reversible pathophysiological process and suppression of fibrosis is necessary to prevent liver cancer. At present, no specific drugs have been found that have hepatic anti-fibrotic activity.

OBJECTIVE

The research progress of anti-hepatic fibrosis compounds in recent ten years was reviewed to provide a reference for the design and development of anti-hepatic fibrosis drugs.

METHODS

According to the structure of the compounds, they are divided into monocyclic compounds, fused-heterocyclic compounds, and acyclic compounds.

RESULTS

In this article, the natural products and synthetic compounds with anti-fibrotic activity in recent ten years were reviewed, with emphasis on their pharmacological activity and structure-activity relationship (SAR).

CONCLUSION

Most of these compounds are natural active products and their derivatives, and there are few researches on synthetic compounds and SAR studies on natural product.

Sodium alginate combined with oxymatrine ameliorates CCl4-induced chemical hepatic fibrosis in mice

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) is a challenging clinical problem. Both sodium alginate (SA) and oxymatrine (OM) can be used to treat HF; however, the influence of viscosity on the therapeutic efficacy of sodium alginate is currently unknown. This study used a CCl4-induced HF mouse model to screen the specifications and doses of SA and investigate its therapeutic effects on HF in combination with OM. Sodium alginate of different viscosities ameliorated HF in mice, with 232 mPa·s SA delivered at a dose of 100 mg/kg showing remarkable therapeutic effect, characterized by reduced aspartate transaminase/alanine transaminase levels, reduced expression of α-SMA, collagen I, and other related genes, and increased abundance of beneficial intestinal probiotics such as Lactococcus and Blautia. The combination treatment further improved other related indices and increased the abundance of Phascolarctobacterium and Oscillospiraceae. These results suggest that the oral administration of SA may improve HF via the "gut-liver axis" based on the gut microbiota and has potential clinical applications.

Correlation between SDF-1α, CD34 positive hematopoietic stem cells and CXCR4 expression with liver fibrosis in CCl4 rat model

BACKGROUND

One of the most frequent disorders is liver fibrosis. An improved understanding of the different events during the process of liver fibrosis & its reversibility could be helpful in its staging and in finding potential therapeutic agents.

AIM

The goal of this research was to evaluate the relationship among CD34 + HPSCs, SDF-1α, and CXCR4 receptor expression with the percentage of the area of hepatic fibrosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into the control group, liver injury group & spontaneous reversion group. The liver injury was induced by using 2 ml/kg CCl4 twice a week. Flow cytometric examination of CD34 + cells in the blood & liver was performed. Bone marrow & liver samples were taken for evaluation of the SDF-1α mRNA by PCR. Liver specimens were stained for histopathological and CXCR4 immuno-expression evaluation.

RESULTS

In the liver injury group, the hepatic enzymes, fibrosis area percentage, CXCR4 receptor expression in the liver, CD34 + cells in the blood and bone marrow & the level SDF-1α in the liver and its concentration gradient were statistically significantly elevated with the progression of the liver fibrosis. On the contrary, SDF-1α in the bone marrow was statistically significantly reduced with the development of liver fibrosis. During the spontaneous reversion group, all the studied parameters apart from SDF-1α in the bone marrow were statistically substantially decreased compared with the liver injury group. We found a statistically substantial positive correlation between fibrosis area and all of the following: liver enzymes, CXCR4 receptor expression in the liver, CD34 + cells in the blood and liver, and SDF- 1α in the liver and its concentration gradient. In conclusion, in CCl4 rat model, the fibrosis area is significantly correlated with many parameters in the blood, bone marrow, and liver, which can be used during the process of follow-up during the therapeutic interventions.

Understanding the Potential Role of Nanotechnology in Liver Fibrosis: A Paradigm in Therapeutics

The liver is a vital organ that plays a crucial role in the physiological operation of the human body. The liver controls the body's detoxification processes as well as the storage and breakdown of red blood cells, plasma protein and hormone production, and red blood cell destruction; therefore, it is vulnerable to their harmful effects, making it more prone to illness. The most frequent complications of chronic liver conditions include cirrhosis, fatty liver, liver fibrosis, hepatitis, and illnesses brought on by alcohol and drugs. Hepatic fibrosis involves the activation of hepatic stellate cells to cause persistent liver damage through the accumulation of cytosolic matrix proteins. The purpose of this review is to educate a concise discussion of the epidemiology of chronic liver disease, the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of liver fibrosis, the symptoms of liver fibrosis progression and regression, the clinical evaluation of liver fibrosis and the research into nanotechnology-based synthetic and herbal treatments for the liver fibrosis is summarized in this article. The herbal remedies summarized in this review article include epigallocathechin-3-gallate, silymarin, oxymatrine, curcumin, tetrandrine, glycyrrhetinic acid, salvianolic acid, plumbagin, Scutellaria baicalnsis Georgi, astragalosides, hawthorn extract, and andrographolides.

Expression and Function of BMP and Activin Membrane-Bound Inhibitor (BAMBI) in Chronic Liver Diseases and Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BAMBI (bone morphogenetic protein and activin membrane-bound inhibitor) is a transmembrane pseudoreceptor structurally related to transforming growth factor (TGF)-β type 1 receptors (TGF-β1Rs). BAMBI lacks a kinase domain and functions as a TGF-β1R antagonist. Essential processes such as cell differentiation and proliferation are regulated by TGF-β1R signaling. TGF-β is the best-studied ligand of TGF-βRs and has an eminent role in inflammation and fibrogenesis. Liver fibrosis is the end stage of almost all chronic liver diseases, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and at the moment, there is no effective anti-fibrotic therapy available. Hepatic BAMBI is downregulated in rodent models of liver injury and in the fibrotic liver of patients, suggesting that low BAMBI has a role in liver fibrosis. Experimental evidence convincingly demonstrated that BAMBI overexpression is able to protect against liver fibrosis. Chronic liver diseases have a high risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and BAMBI was shown to exert tumor-promoting as well as tumor-protective functions. This review article aims to summarize relevant studies on hepatic BAMBI expression and its role in chronic liver diseases and HCC.

Traditional Chinese medicine: An important source for discovering candidate agents against hepatic fibrosis

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) refers to the pathophysiological process of connective tissue dysplasia in the liver caused by various pathogenic factors. Nowadays, HF is becoming a severe threat to the health of human being. However, the drugs available for treating HF are limited. Currently, increasing natural agents derived from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been found to be beneficial for HF. A systemic literature search was conducted from PubMed, GeenMedical, Sci-Hub, CNKI, Google Scholar and Baidu Scholar, with the keywords of "traditional Chinese medicine," "herbal medicine," "natural agents," "liver diseases," and "hepatic fibrosis." So far, more than 76 natural monomers have been isolated and identified from the TCMs with inhibitory effect on HF, including alkaloids, flavones, quinones, terpenoids, saponins, phenylpropanoids, and polysaccharides, etc. The anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of these compounds include hepatoprotection, inhibition of hepatic stellate cells (HSC) activation, regulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis & secretion, regulation of autophagy, and antioxidant & anti-inflammation, etc. Natural compounds and extracts from TCMs are promising agents for the prevention and treatment of HF, and this review would be of great significance to development of novel drugs for treating HF.

Rifaximin Improves Spatial Learning and Memory Impairment in Rats with Liver Damage-Associated Neuroinflammation

Patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) may show mild cognitive impairment. Neuroinflammation in the hippocampus mediates cognitive impairment in rat models of minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE). Treatment with rifaximin reverses cognitive impairment in a large proportion of cirrhotic patients with MHE. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The aims of this work were to assess if rats with mild liver damage, as a model of NAFLD, show neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and impaired cognitive function, if treatment with rifaximin reverses it, and to study the underlying mechanisms. Mild liver damage was induced with carbon-tetrachloride. Infiltration of immune cells, glial activation, and cytokine expression, as well as glutamate receptors expression in the hippocampus and cognitive function were assessed. We assessed the effects of daily treatment with rifaximin on the alterations showed by these rats. Rats with mild liver damage showed hippocampal neuroinflammation, reduced membrane expression of glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits, and impaired spatial memory. Increased C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (CCL2), infiltration of monocytes, microglia activation, and increased tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) were reversed by rifaximin, that normalized NMDA receptor expression and improved spatial memory. Thus, rifaximin reduces neuroinflammation and improves cognitive function in rats with mild liver damage, being a promising therapy for patients with NAFLD showing mild cognitive impairment.

Perfluorooctane sulfonate aggravates CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis via HMGB1/TLR4/Smad signaling

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is a widespread environmental pollutant and may cause a variety of adverse health effects. The hepatotoxicity of PFOS has attracted particular attention, given the fact that the liver has one of the highest PFOS accumulations among human tissues. In this study, we revealed that subchronic PFOS exposure may exacerbate carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄ )-induced liver fibrosis in animal models. Administration with 1 mg/kg PFOS every other day for 56 days dramatically enhanced CCl₄ -mediated liver injury and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. Furthermore, PFOS exposure may promote the activation of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1)/toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway through inducing the secretion of HMGB1 from hepatocytes. PFOS exposure induced the translocation of HMGB1 from the nucleus into the cytoplasm of hepatocytes and cultured BRL-3A cells at a starting concentration of 50 μM. This process is accompanied with concurrent flux of calcium, suggesting a link between calcium signaling and HMGB1 release following PFOS exposure. Finally, we showed that PFOS-exposed conditional medium (PFOS-CM) of hepatocytes may induce the translocation of Smad2/3 in HSCs in a TLR4-dependent manner. Taken together, subchronic PFOS exposure might play a pro-fibrotic role via a HMGB1/TLR4-dependent Smad signaling in HSCs. Our findings for the first time uncovered an involvement of PFOS exposure in liver fibrosis via HMGB1/TLR4/Smad signaling.

A CFH peptide-decorated liposomal oxymatrine inactivates cancer-associated fibroblasts of hepatocellular carcinoma through epithelial–mesenchymal transition reversion

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) deteriorate tumor microenvironment (TME) and hinder intra-tumoral drug delivery. Direct depleting CAFs exists unpredictable risks of tumor metastasis. Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a critical process of CAFs converted from hepatic stellate cells during hepatocellular tumorigenesis; however, until now the feasibility of reversing EMT to battle hepatocellular carcinoma has not been comprehensively explored. In this study, we report a CFH peptide (CFHKHKSPALSPVGGG)-decorated liposomal oxymatrine (CFH/OM-L) with a high affinity to Tenascin-C for targeted inactivating CAFs through reversing EMT, which is verified by the upregulation of E-cadherin and downregulation of vimentin, N-cadherin, and snail protein in vivo and in vitro. After the combination with icaritin-loaded lipid complex, CFH/OM-L obviously boosts the comprehensive anticancer efficacy in both 3D tumor spheroids and stromal-rich tumor xenograft nude mouse models. The combinational therapy not only effectively reversed the in vivo EMT process but also significantly lowered the collagen, creating favorable conditions for deep penetration of nanoparticles. More importantly, CFH/OM-L does not kill but inactivates CAFs, resulting in not only a low risk of tumor metastasis but also a reprogramming TME, such as M1 tumor-associated macrophages polarization and natural killer cells activation. Such strategy paves a moderate way to remold TME without depleting CAFs and provides a powerful tool to design strategies of combinational hepatocellular carcinoma therapy.

Graphical Abstract

The Potential Application of Chinese Medicine in Liver Diseases: A New Opportunity

Liver diseases have been a common challenge for people all over the world, which threatens the quality of life and safety of hundreds of millions of patients. China is a major country with liver diseases. Metabolic associated fatty liver disease, hepatitis B virus and alcoholic liver disease are the three most common liver diseases in our country, and the number of patients with liver cancer is increasing. Therefore, finding effective drugs to treat liver disease has become an urgent task. Chinese medicine (CM) has the advantages of low cost, high safety, and various biological activities, which is an important factor for the prevention and treatment of liver diseases. This review systematically summarizes the potential of CM in the treatment of liver diseases, showing that CM can alleviate liver diseases by regulating lipid metabolism, bile acid metabolism, immune function, and gut microbiota, as well as exerting anti-liver injury, anti-oxidation, and anti-hepatitis virus effects. Among them, Keap1/Nrf2, TGF-β/SMADS, p38 MAPK, NF-κB/IκBα, NF-κB-NLRP3, PI3K/Akt, TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB and IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathways are mainly involved. In conclusion, CM is very likely to be a potential candidate for liver disease treatment based on modern phytochemistry, pharmacology, and genomeproteomics, which needs more clinical trials to further clarify its importance in the treatment of liver diseases.

Discovery of a Potential Liver Fibrosis Inhibitor from a Mushroom Endophytic Fungus by Genome Mining of a Silent Biosynthetic Gene Cluster

Liver fibrosis has accounted for liver diseases and overall mortality, but no relevant drug has been developed. Filamentous fungi are important resources of natural products for pharmaceutical development. Calcarisporium arbuscula is a mushroom endophytic fungus, which primarily produces aurovertins. Here, in an aurovertin null-production mutant, one silent gene cluster (mca17) was activated by overexpression of a pathway-specific zinc finger transcriptional regulator, and a tetramic acid-type compound (1, MCA17-1) was identified. Along with detailed structural characterization, its biosynthesis was proposed to be produced from the core PKS-NRPS hybrid enzyme. Moreover, 1 suppressed the activation of LX-2 upon transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) challenge and had stronger bioactivity than the positive control obeticholic acid (OCA) against liver fibrosis. Our work suggested that this engineered fungus could be a producer of 1 for promising pharmaceutical development, and alternatively, it would be developed as a mushroom ingredient in dietary therapy to prevent liver fibrosis.

Oxymatrine protects cardiac allografts by regulating immunotolerant cells

Organ transplantation is an effective treatment strategy for patients with irreversible organ failure or congenital organ dysfunction. Oxymatrine (OMT) is a quinolizidine alkaloid with protective and anti-inflammatory effects on tissues and organs. The objective of this study was to investigate whether OMT could exert protective effects in cardiac allografts by regulating immune cells. In vitro cell proliferation and co-culture experiments were used to measure the effects of OMT on splenocyte proliferation and differentiation. In the in vivo study, C57BL/6 mice transplanted with BALB/c cardiac grafts were randomly divided into untreated, low-dose OMT treated, middle-dose OMT treated, high-dose OMT treated, and rapamycin-treated groups. Haematoxylin and eosin and immunohistochemical staining were used to assess pathological changes in the grafts, and fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis was performed to measure the percentages of immune cells. The results showed that, in the in vitro study, OMT inhibited splenocyte proliferation, decreased the percentage of mature dendritic cells (DCs), and increased the percentage of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and regulatory B cells (Bregs). In the in vivo study, OMT exerted allograft protective effects by prolonging survival time, alleviating pathological damages to the cardiac allograft, decreasing intragraft CD3⁺ cell and increasing intragraft Foxp3⁺ cell infiltration, decreasing the percentages of mature DCs, increasing the percentages of Tregs and Bregs, and inhibiting the function of DCs. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that OMT exerted a protective effect on cardiac allografts by regulating immunotolerant cells. More in-depth studies of OMT may provide additional insight into the use of immunosuppressive drugs as a post-transplantation treatment strategy.

Antifibrotic Effects of Kangxian Ruangan Capsule on Rats with Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Fibrosis and Hepatic Stellate Cells through Regulation of TGF-β and TLR4 Signaling Pathways

Kangxian ruangan (KXRG) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula consisting of 12 herbs. TCM syndrome differentiation proposes that KXRG exerts pharmacological effects against nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) fibrosis. This work investigates the effect of KXRG on NAFLD fibrosis in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, the NAFLD fibrosis model was constructed in Wistar rats using methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD) diet, followed by KXRG (0.92 g/kg/d) treatment for 8 weeks. In vitro, primary hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) were activated using platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and treated with KXRG. Molecular mechanisms underlying fibrosis were investigated. After 8 weeks, compared with the control groups, the histological lesions, degree of fibrosis, and inflammatory reaction increased with the MCD diet as demonstrated by histological changes and increased fibrosis-related (α-SMA, TGF-β, COL1A1, and desmin, P < 0.01) and inflammation-related factors (TNF-α, MCP-1, and F4/80, P < 0.01), whereas they decreased with KXRG treatment (P < 0.01). KXRG not only inhibited the proliferation of activated HSCs and promoted their apoptosis but also resulted in G0-G1 arrest. Furthermore, KXRG suppressed HSC activation (P < 0.01), collagen synthesis (P < 0.01), and α-SMA expression (P < 0.01) with PDGF stimulation. In both the MCD diet-induced animal model and PDGF-induced cell model, KXRG inhibited TGF-β and TLR4 signaling (P < 0.01), similar to corresponding small-molecule inhibitors. These results demonstrated that KXRG might exert suppressive effects against NAFLD fibrosis via regulating TGF-β and TLR4 signaling. KXRG may act as a natural and potent therapeutic agent against NAFLD.

Traditional Chinese medicine as a therapeutic option for cardiac fibrosis: Pharmacology and mechanisms

Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death worldwide and cardiac fibrosis is a common pathological process for cardiac remodeling in cardiovascular diseases. Cardiac fibrosis not only accelerates the deterioration progress of diseases but also becomes a pivotal contributor for futile treatment in clinical cardiovascular trials. Although cardiac fibrosis is common and prevalent, effective medicines to provide sufficient clinical intervention for cardiac fibrosis are still unavailable. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is the natural essence experienced boiling, fry, and other processing methods, including active ingredients, extracts, and herbal formulas, which have been applied to treat human diseases for a long history. Recently, research has increasingly focused on the great potential of TCM for the prevention and treatment of cardiac fibrosis. Here, we aim to clarify the identified pro-fibrotic mechanisms and intensively summarize the application of TCM in improving cardiac fibrosis by working on these mechanisms. Through comprehensively analyzing, TCM mainly regulates the following pathways during ameliorating cardiac fibrosis: attenuation of inflammation and oxidative stress, inhibition of cardiac fibroblasts activation, reduction of extracellular matrix accumulation, modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, modulation of autophagy, regulation of metabolic-dependent mechanisms, and targeting microRNAs. We also discussed the deficiencies and the development direction of anti-fibrotic therapies on cardiac fibrosis. The data reviewed here demonstrates that TCM shows a robust effect on alleviating cardiac fibrosis, which provides us a rich source of new drugs or drug candidates. Besides, we also hope this review may give some enlightenment for treating cardiac fibrosis in clinical practice.

Zi Qi Decoction Alleviates Liver Fibrosis by Inhibiting the Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4)-Related Nuclear Factor kappa b (NF-κB) and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Signaling Pathways

Background

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play a vital role in hepatic fibrogenesis. Our recent clinical study indicated that the Zi Qi decoction, a Traditional Chinese Medicine formula, exhibited good efficacy in alleviating liver fibrosis, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive.

Material/Methods

Rats repeatedly injected with CCl₄ and cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide were used as in vivo and in vitro models for liver fibrosis, respectively. The viability of LX-2 cells was evaluated with MTT assay. Relative messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of representative extracellular matrix (ECM) components was detected with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Moreover, total and phosphorylation levels of ECM proteins and pathway-related proteins were detected with western blotting. Immunofluorescent staining was used to show the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa b (NF-κB) p65. Hematoxylin & eosin (H&E) and Masson trichrome staining and immunohistochemistry were performed to evaluate the extent of liver fibrosis. The levels of alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), Hyp, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were tested with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, 7.0T micro-magnetic resonance imaging (micro-MRI) was used to evaluate the severity of hepatic damage.

Results

The Zi Qi decoction inhibited lipopolysaccharide-mediated upregulation of mRNA and protein levels of representative ECM proteins both in vivo and in vitro. The Zi Qi decoction also suppressed activation of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-related NF-κB signaling pathway and subsequently inhibited the nuclear translocation of activated NF-κB. Moreover, another TLR4 downstream pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), was simultaneously restrained. The results of liver pathology and MRI in rat models also suggested the efficacy of the Zi Qi decoction in attenuating liver damage.

Conclusions

The Zi Qi decoction inhibited liver fibrosis by inhibiting the TLR4-related NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways and preventing activation of HSCs.

Bixin attenuates carbon tetrachloride induced oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrosis in kidney by regulating the Nrf2/TLR4/MyD88 and PPAR-γ/TGF-β1/Smad3 pathway

Bixin, an natural carotenoid extracted from the seeds of the Bixa orellana has been shown to possess numerous important pharmacological activities. The present study was aimed to investigate the mechanisms of Bixin on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced kidney inflammation, fibrosis and oxidative stress in mice. Our results showed that Bixin improved renal damage by decreasing the serum levels of creatinine, urea, uric acid and alleviating kidney fibrosis. Bixin ameliorated CCl4-induced inflammation in kidneys by reducing the levels of TNF-α and IL-1β. Bixin suppressed oxidative stress by decreasing the MDA level and increasing the activation of SOD, CAT and GPx. Furthermore, Bixin increased the levels of PPAR-γ, NQO1, HO-1 and the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 in the kidneys of mice. Bixin supplementation inhibited the activation of TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, TGF-β and Smad3. Thus, this study demonstrated that Bixin possesses anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrosis properties through regulating the Nrf2/TLR4/MyD88 and PPAR-γ/TGF-β1/Smad3 pathways.

Regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activity affects the hepatic stellate cell activation and the progression of NASH via TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway

Development of liver fibrosis is associated with activation of quiescent hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) into myofibroblasts (activated HSCs), which produce excessive extracellular matrix. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) exerts protective effects on hepatic inflammation and fibrosis. The current study was to explore the function of PPAR-γ on HSC activation and progression of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Our study found that HSCs were gradually activated during the progression of methionine-choline-deficient (MCD) diet-induced NASH, accompanied by decreased PPAR-γ expression and activated TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway in the liver. PPAR-γ agonist was found to inhibit primary HSCs and NIH/3T3 fibroblast activation and reverted their phenotypical morphology induced by TGF-β1 in vitro. In addition to this, PPAR-γ agonist decreased expression of TGF-β1 and phosphorylation of Smad2/3 while increased expression of Smad7. In vivo, rosiglitazone, a PPAR-γ agonist, inhibited HSC activation and alleviated liver fibrosis and inflammation similarly via inhibiting the activation of TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway. In parallel, rosiglitazone alleviated hepatic lipid accumulation and peroxidation, beneficial to reverse of NASH. From these findings, it can be concluded that the gradual activation of HSCs is crucial to the progression of NASH and modulating PPAR-γ expression can affect HSC activation via TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway and thereby influence hepatic fibrogenesis.

Oxymatrine exerts anti-fibrotic effects in a rat model of hepatic fibrosis by suppressing endoplasmic reticulum stress

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the anti-fibrotic effects of oxymatrine and the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in hepatic fibrosis (HF) in animal models.

METHODS

The HF rat model was established by exposure to NaAsO2, followed by treatment with oxymatrine. Biomarkers of HF and ER stress were measured. The difference in protein expression between groups was evaluated using isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) analysis. The mechanism by which oxymatrine modulated ER stress to alleviate arsenic-induced HF was evaluated using LX2 hepatic stellate cells in vitro.

RESULTS

The rat model mimicked the pathological and physical phenotypes of HF including ER stress, oxidative stress, impaired liver function, and fibrosis. Treatment with oxymatrine suppressed these responses. Moreover, apoptosis, inflammation, and hepatic stellate cell activation were also inhibited by oxymatrine treatment. The differentially expressed proteins and pathways related to ER stress were identified in the HF and oxymatrine-treated groups via iTRAQ analysis combined with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. LX2 cells were activated by NaAsO2 in vitro. Meanwhile, oxymatrine suppressed the activation of LX2 cells by alleviating ER stress and regulating cellular calcium homeostasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxymatrine could reverse NaAsO2-induced HF by alleviating ER stress.

A comprehensive review of natural products to fight liver fibrosis: Alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, coumarins and other compounds

The discovery of drugs to treat liver fibrosis has long been a challenge over the past decades due to its complicated pathogenesis. As a primary approach for drug development, natural products account for 30% of clinical drugs used for disease treatment. Therefore, natural products are increasingly important for their medicinal value in liver fibrosis therapy. In this part of the review, special focus is placed on the effect and mechanism of natural compounds, including alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, coumarins and others. A total of 36 kinds of natural compounds demonstrate significant antifibrotic effects in various liver fibrosis models in vivo and in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in vitro. Revealing the mechanism will provide further basis for clinical conversion, as well as accelerate drug discovery. The mechanism was further summarized with the finding of network regulation by several natural products, such as oxymatrine, paeoniflorin, ginsenoside Rg1 and taurine. Moreover, there are still improvements needed in investigating clinical efficacy, determining mechanisms, and combining applications, as well as semisynthesis and modification. Therefore, natural products area promising resource for agents that protect against liver fibrosis.

Prospect and clinical value of oxymatrine in prevention and treatment of pancreatic fibrosis

Studies have confirmed that pancreatic stellate cell activation is the central event in the initiation and development of pancreatic fibrosis (PF), but the specific mechanism of PF is still unknown, and there is no specific treatment for PF. Some basic studies have confirmed that oxymatrine (OMT) has a certain therapeutic effect on PF, but further research is needed. It can be predicted that OMT has a far-reaching research prospect and good clinical application value for the prevention and treatment of PF, and is also conducive to the better development and utilization of traditional Chinese herbal medicine radix sophorae flavescentis.

Oxymatrine ameliorates imiquimod-induced psoriasis pruritus and inflammation through inhibiting heat shock protein 90 and heat shock protein 60 expression in keratinocytes

In this work, we aimed to investigate whether oxymatrine exerts its anti-pruritic and anti-inflammatory efficacy in the imiquimod-induced psoriasis mice and the related mechanism. We established the psoriasis model by applying the imiquimod ointment topically and oxymatrine was injected intraperitoneally as the treatment. The behavior and skin morphology results indicated that oxymatrine inhibits imiquimod-induced pruritus alleviating keratinization of skin and inflammatory infiltration. Moreover, we examined the expression of various indicators and found heat shock protein (HSP) 90 and 60 upregulated in model group, which were reversed in oxymatrine treated groups. Molecular docking and the studies in vivo confirmed that HSP90 and HSP60 participate in the inhibitory effect of oxymatrine on the phenotypes of psoriasis mice. Mechanically, immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that oxymatrine-induced downregulation of HSP90 and HSP60 was mainly in keratinocytes. In vitro results showed that oxymatrine decreases the expression of HSP90 and HSP60 upregulated by TNF-α and IFN-γ in HaCaTs cells and the siRNA mediated HSP90 and HSP60 silencing reverses inflammation inhibited by oxymatrine. Taken together, these results indicate that oxymatrine relieves psoriasis pruritic and inflammation by inhibiting the expression of HSP90 and HSP60 in keratinocytes through MAPK signaling pathway.

LEFTY2 alleviates hepatic stellate cell activation and liver fibrosis by regulating the TGF-β1/Smad3 pathway

Activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are the major cell type involved in the deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) during the development of hepatic fibrosis. In this study, we revealed that left-right determination factor 2 (LEFTY2), one of the proteins belonging to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) protein superfamily, was remarkedly decreased in human hepatic fibrosis tissues and in a carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver fibrosis mouse model. In addition, TGF-β1 treatment markedly reduced the level of LEFTY2 in HSCs. Importantly, overexpression of LEFTY2 suppressed the activation and proliferation of HSCs. LEFTY2 inhibited the expression of TGF-β1-induced fibrosis-associated genes (α-SMA and COL1a1) in human (LX-2) and rat (HSC-T6) HSC cell lines in vitro. Mechanistically, we demonstrated, for the first time, the role of LEFTY2 in inhibiting TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling, suggesting that there is a mutual antagonism between LEFTY2 and TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling during liver fibrosis. Similarly, we observed that LEFTY2 has a negative effect on its downstream genes, including c-MYC, CDK4, and cyclin D1, in liver fibrosis. Collectively, our data strongly indicated that LEFTY2 plays an important role in controlling the proliferation and activation of HSCs in the progression of liver fibrosis and this could be a potential therapeutic target for its treatment.

Oxymatrine Attenuates Dopaminergic Neuronal Damage and Microglia-Mediated Neuroinflammation Through Cathepsin D-Dependent HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

Oxymatrine (OMT), a natural quinoxaline alkaloid extracted from the root of Sophora flavescens, presents amounts of pharmacological properties including immunomodulation, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and anti-virus. Recent studies tend to focus on its effects on neuroinflammation and neuroprotection in Parkinson’s disease (PD) due to its profound anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, the neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of OMT were investigated in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-stimulated mice and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺)-induced mice primary microglia. Additionally, mice primary neuron-microglia co-cultures and primary microglia infected with Cathepsin D (CathD)-overexpressed lentivirus were used to clarify whether the neuroprotective effect of OMT was through a CathD-dependent pathway. Results showed that OMT dose-dependently alleviated MPTP-induced motor deficits and conferred significant dopamine (DA) neuroprotection against MPTP/MPP⁺-induced neurotoxicity. In addition, OMT inhibited MPTP/MPP⁺-induced microglia activation and the pro-inflammatory cytokines release. Further, OMT down-regulated the expression of CathD, and inhibited the activation of the HMGB1/TLR4 signaling pathway as well as the nuclear translocation of NF-κB both in vivo and in vitro. It is worth noting that overexpression of CathD reversed OMT-targeted inhibition of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling and OMT-produced neuroprotection in reconstituted neuron-microglia co-cultures. Our findings indicated that OMT conferred DA neuroprotection and attenuated microglial-mediated neuroinflammation through CathD-dependent inhibition of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Our study supports a potential role for OMT in ameliorating PD, and proposes that OMT may be useful in the treatment of PD.

Targeting Hepatic Stellate Cells for the Treatment of Liver Fibrosis by Natural Products: Is It the Dawning of a New Era?

Liver fibrosis is a progressive liver damage condition that is worth studying widely. It is important to target and alleviate the disease at an early stage before turning into later cirrhosis or liver cancer. There are currently no direct medicines targeting the attenuation or reversal of liver fibrosis, and so there is an urgent need to look into this area. Traditional Chinese Medicine has a long history in using herbal medicines to treat liver diseases including fibrosis. It is time to integrate the ancient wisdom with modern science and technology to look for the best solution to the disease. In this review, the principal concept of the pathology of liver fibrosis will be described, and then some of the single compounds isolated from herbal medicines, including salvianolic acids, oxymatrine, curcumin, tetrandrine, etc. will be discussed from their effects to the molecular mechanism behind. Molecular targets of the compounds are analyzed by network pharmacology approach, and TGFβ/SMAD was identified as the most common pathway. This review serves to summarize the current findings of herbal medicines combining with modern medicines in the area of fibrosis. It hopefully provides insights in further pharmaceutical research directions.

Hepatic Proteomic Changes and Sirt1/AMPK Signaling Activation by Oxymatrine Treatment in Rats With Non-alcoholic Steatosis

Background

Currently, active ingredients of herbal extracts that can suppress lipid accumulation in the liver have been considered a potential treatment option for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Methods

Steatosis rat model was created by high fat and high sucrose diet feeding and treated with oxymatrine (OMT). Serum biochemical parameters, liver histology and lipid profiles were examined. Hepatic differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) which were significantly changed by OMT treatment were identified by iTRAQ analysis. The expressions of representative DEPs, Sirt1 and AMPKα were evaluated by western blotting.

Results

OMT significantly reduced the body weight and liver weight of steatosis animals, decreased the serum levels of triglyceride and total cholesterol as well as the hepatic triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, and effectively alleviated fatty degeneration in the liver. A list of OMT-related DEPs have been screened and evaluated by bioinformatics analysis. OMT significantly decreased the expressions of L-FABP, Plin2, FASN and SCD1 and increased Sirt1 expression and AMPKα phosphorylation in the liver of rats with steatosis.

Conclusion

The present study has confirmed the significant efficacy of OMT for improving steatosis and revealed hepatic proteomic changes and Sirt1/AMPK signaling activation by OMT treatment in rats with steatosis.

Effects of gastrodin against carbon tetrachloride induced kidney inflammation and fibrosis in mice associated with the AMPK/Nrf2/HMGB1 pathway

Gastrodin (GAS), the main phenolic glycoside extracted from Gastrodia elata Blume, exhibits potential renoprotective properties.

Hepatoprotective effect of ultrasonicated ginseng berry extract on a rat mild bile duct ligation model

Background

The Panax ginseng berry extract (GBE) is well known to have an antidiabetic effect. The aim of this study is to evaluate and investigate the protective effect of ultrasonication-processed P. ginseng berry extract (UGBE) compared with GBE on liver fibrosis induced by mild bile duct ligation (MBDL) model in rats. After ultrasonication process, the composition ratio of ginsenoside in GBE was changed. The component ratio of ginsenosides Rh1, Rh4, Rg2, Rg3, Rk1, Rk3, and F4 in the extract was elevated.

Methods

In this study, the protective effect of the newly developed UGBE was evaluated on hepatotoxicity and neuronal damage in MBDL model. Silymarin (150 mg/kg) was used for positive control. UGBE (100 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg), GBE (250 mg/kg), and silymarin (150 mg/kg) were orally administered for 6 weeks after MBDL surgery.

Results

The MBDL surgery induced severe hepatotoxicity that leads to liver inflammation in rats. Also, the serum ammonia level was increased by MBDL surgery. However, the liver dysfunction of MBDL surgery–operated rats was attenuated by UGBE treatment via myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathways.

Conclusion

UGBE has a protective effect on liver fibrosis induced by MBDL in rats through inhibition of the TLR4 signaling pathway in liver.

The cytotoxic effect of oxymatrine on basic cellular processes of A549 non-small lung cancer cells

Oxymatrine is the alkaloid derived from the root of Sophora species. This compound is proven to exhibit anti-viral, anti-asthmatic, anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, oxymatrine is able to promote cancer cells apoptosis and inhibit their proliferation. The aim of this study was to present the influence of oxymatrine on non-small cell lung cancer cells. The results indicate, that this agent induces dose-dependent cell death mainly through ER stress-induced apoptosis pathway. We also suggest that the oxymatrine reduces the metastatic potential by inhibition of the EMT process, as A549 cells treated with chosen doses of the compound were characterized by a decrease in the expression of the N-cadherin, vimentin and the elevation of E-cadherin level. Moreover, the study broadens the knowledge on so far poorly understood aspect of the influence of oxymatrine on the cytoskeleton structure.

Inhibitory Effects of Oxymatrine on Transdifferentiation of Neonatal Rat Cardiac Fibroblasts to Myofibroblasts Induced by Aldosterone via Keap1/Nrf2 Signaling Pathways In Vitro

Background

Oxymatrine (OMT), a quinolizidine alkaloid derived from the traditional Chinese herb Radix Sophorae flavescentis, has widely reported pharmacological efficacy in treating cardiovascular dysfunction-related diseases. However, the underlying mechanism has been unclear. Here, we investigated the potential inhibitory effects and mechanism of OMT on transdifferentiation of cardiac fibroblast to myofibroblasts induced by aldosterone in vitro.

Material/Methods

The cardiac fibroblasts (CFBs) proliferation and migration capacity were evaluated by MTT assay, cell cycle assay, and scratch analysis, respectively. The protein expression of the Nrf2/Keap1 signal pathway, FN, Collagen I, Collagen III, α-SMA, CTGF, and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) protein was detected by Western blot analysis. The mRNA expression of Nrf2 was detected by qRT-PCR. Immunofluorescence staining was used to observe the expression of α-SMA protein. Nrf2 siRNA was used to explore the role of Nrf2 in OMT-treated CFBs. GSH, SOD, and MDA levels and hydroxyproline content were measured by colorimetric assay with commercial kits. The DCFH-DA fluorescent probe was used to assess cellular ROS levels.

Results

OMT and Curcumin (an Nrf2 agonist) attenuated aldosterone (ALD)-induced proliferation and migration in CFBs, as well as the fibrosis-associated protein expression levels. Moreover, OMT activated Nrf2 and promoted the nucleus translocation of Nrf2. OMT alleviated the elevated levels of α-SMA, Collagen I, Collagen III, and CTGF, which were abrogated by the Nrf2 siRNA transfection. We also found that OMT decreased oxidative stress levels.

Conclusions

Our results confirm that OMT alleviates transdifferentiation of cardiac fibroblasts to myofibroblasts induced by aldosterone via activating the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway in vitro.

Research progress on the anti-hepatic fibrosis action and mechanism of natural products

Hepatic fibrosis is the most common pathological feature of most chronic liver diseases, and its continuous deterioration gradually develops into liver cirrhosis and eventually leads to liver cancer. At present, there are many kinds of drugs used to treat liver fibrosis. However, Western drugs tend to only target single genes/proteins and induce many adverse reactions. Most of the mechanisms and active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) are not clear, and there is a lack of unified diagnosis and treatment standards. Natural products, which are characterized by structural diversity, low toxicity, and origination from a wide range of sources, have unique advantages and great potential in anti-liver fibrosis. This article summarizes the work done over the previous decade, on the active ingredients in natural products that are reported to have anti-hepatic fibrosis effects. The effective anti-hepatic fibrosis ingredients identified can be generally divided into flavonoids, saponins, polysaccharides and alkaloids. Mechanisms of anti-liver fibrosis include inhibition of liver inflammation, anti-lipid peroxidation injury, inhibition of the activation and proliferation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), modulation of the synthesis and secretion of pro-fibrosis factors, and regulation of the synthesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). This review provides suggestions for the development of anti-hepatic fibrosis drugs.

Inhibitory effects of oxymatrine on hepatic stellate cells activation through TGF-β/miR-195/Smad signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Oxymatrine (OM), a quinolizidine alkaloid extracted from a herb Sophorae Flavescentis Radix, has been used to treat liver fibrotic diseases. However, the mechanism of its anti-fibrosis effects is still unclear. TGF-β/Smad signaling and miR-195 have been proved to paly an important role in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation and liver fibrosis. In this study, we investigated whether OM could inhibit HSCs activation through TGF-β1/miR-195/Smads signaling or not.

METHODS

First, the effects of OM on HSC-T6 in different concentrations and time points were tested by MTT assay. We choose three appropriate concentrations of OM as treatment concentrations in following experiment. By Quantitative Real-time PCR and Western Blot, then we investigated the effect of OM on miR-195, Smad7 and α-SMA's expressions to prove the correlation between OM and the TGF-β1/miR-195/Smads signaling. Last, miR-195 mimic and INF-γ were used to investigate the relation between miR-195 and OM in HSC activation.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the proliferation of HSC was significantly inhibited when OM concentration was higher than 200 μg/mL after 24 h, 100 μg/mL after 48 h and 10 μg/mL after 72 h. The IC₅₀ of OM after 24, 48 and 72 h were 539, 454, 387 μg/mL respectively. OM could down-regulate miR-195 and α-SMA (P < 0.01), while up-regulate Smad7 (P < 0.05). In HSC-T6 cells transfected with miR-195 mimic and pretreated with OM, miR-195 and α-SMA were up-regulated (P < 0.05), and Smad7 was down-regulated (P < 0.05) .

CONCLUSIONS

Given these results, OM could inhibit TGF-β1 induced activation of HSC-T6 proliferation in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner to some extent. We proved that OM inhibited HSC activation through down-regulating the expression of miR-195 and up-regulating Smad7.

Oxymatrine ameliorates agomelatine-induced hepatocyte injury through promoting proteasome-mediated CHOP degradation

BACKGROUND

The novel antidepressant drug agomelatine has been observed to cause adverse effect of hepatotoxicity in clinical applications. This study was designed to explore protective agents and investigated the underlying mechanism on L02 cells.

METHOD

L02 cells were treated with agomelatine and oxymatrine (OMT) and cell apoptosis were analyzed through flow cytometric analysis, CCK-8 assay and TUNEL assay. In a separate experiment, the expressions of ER stress-related proteins were determined by western blot. In addition, MG132, chloroquine (CQ) and bafilomycinA1(BafA1) were used to investigate the potential pathway participating in CHOP degradation.

RESULTS

OMT significantly rescued agomelatine-induced hepatocyte apoptosis. Agomelatine treatment resulted in accumulation of CHOP protein in L02 cells, and this phenomenon could be significantly reduced by OMT, whereas abolished by MG132 treatment.

CONCLUSION

We have demonstrated for the first time that OMT ameliorates the hepatocyte toxicity induced by agomelatine through decreasing CHOP on protein level. The underlying mechanism was proved to involve the molecular events that OMT promotes CHOP degradation via proteasome pathway. Overall, these results suggest that using OMT in combination with agomelatine may provide a safety strategy for clinical depression treatment.

Signaling pathways involved in p38-ERK and inflammatory factors mediated the anti-fibrosis effect of AD-2 on thioacetamide-induced liver injury in mice

Ginseng is a type of medicinal and edible homologous plant that is very common in medicine, food and even cosmetics.

Hepatitis C: From inflammatory pathogenesis to anti-inflammatory/hepatoprotective therapy

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection commonly causes progressive liver diseases that deteriorate from chronic inflammation to fibrosis, cirrhosis and even to hepatocellular carcinoma. A long-term, persistent and uncontrolled inflammatory response is a hallmark of these diseases and further leads to hepatic injury and more severe disease progression. The levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines change with the states of infection and treatment, and therefore, they may serve as candidate biomarkers for disease progression and therapeutic effects. The mechanisms of HCV-induced inflammation involve classic pathogen pattern recognition, inflammasome activation, intrahepatic inflammatory cascade response, and oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) are the first-choice therapy for effectively eliminating HCV, but DAAs alone are not sufficient to block the uncontrolled inflammation and severe liver injury in HCV-infected individuals. Some patients who achieve a sustained virologic response after DAA therapy are still at a long-term risk for progression to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, coupling with anti-inflammatory/hepatoprotective agents with anti-HCV effects is a promising therapeutic regimen for these patients during or after treatment with DAAs. In this review, we discuss the relationship between inflammatory mediators and HCV infection, summarize the mechanisms of HCV-induced inflammation, and describe the potential roles of anti-inflammatory/hepatoprotective drugs with anti-HCV activity in the treatment of advanced HCV infection.

Oxymatrine Inhibits Transforming Growth Factor β1 (TGF-β1)-Induced Cardiac Fibroblast-to-Myofibroblast Transformation (FMT) by Mediating the Notch Signaling Pathway In Vitro

Background

Oxymatrine, a component extracted from the traditional Chinese herb Sophora japonica (Sophora flavescens Ait.), has various pharmacological effects, especially on the cardiovascular system. However, its cardiac protection effects and the underlying mechanism are still poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory effect and mechanism of oxymatrine on cardiac fibrosis induced by TGF-β1.

Material/Methods

Cardiac fibroblasts were isolated and purified from neonatal rats. Immunocytochemical staining was used to identify the cells. MTT assay and immunofluorescence staining were used to assess cardiac fibroblasts proliferation and myofibroblasts transformation. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was performed to evaluate morphological changes of cardiac fibroblasts. The secretion of type I and III collagen was assessed by staining with picrosirius red and the hydroxyproline content was determined by colorimetric assay. Cardiac fibroblast migration was examined by scratch assay and DNA content was detected to analyze cell cycle distribution using flow cytometry. Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein expressions of Notch pathway-associated protein in cardiac fibroblasts.

Results

Oxymatrine and Notch signaling pathway inhibitor DAPT could attenuated TGF-β1 induced the capacity of proliferation and migration increased in cardiac fibroblasts, as well as the secretion of collagen and hydroxyproline colorimetric content in medium. TGF-β1 induced the biomarker α-SMA of fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transformation (FMT), which was inhibited by oxymatrine and DAPT. Western blotting confirmed that oxymatrine blocked the activation of Notch induced by TGF-β1.

Conclusions

Oxymatrine is a potential inhibitor FMT induced by TGF-β1, which is at least in part mediated via inhibition of Notch signaling.

Regulation of TLR4 expression mediates the attenuating effect of erythropoietin on inflammation and myocardial fibrosis in rat heart

The mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory or antifibrotic activity of erythropoietin (EPO) in myocardial fibrosis (MF) remains elusive. In the current study, abdominal aortic constriction (AAC) was performed on rats and EPO and/or Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 were overexpressed in rat hearts through intramyocardial administration of lentivirus expressing the EPO and TLR4 genes. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and Masson's trichrome staining were performed on tissue sections from rat hearts for histopathological examination. ELISA was used to determine the levels of inflammatory mediators in serum. Gene expression levels were determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis and protein expression levels were determined by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence staining. The results indicated that EPO overexpression improved MF in rat hearts, by inhibiting the release of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, IL-17A, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and MMP-2. Moreover, EPO overexpression suppressed the expression of TLR4, while promoting phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and phosphorylated AKT serine/threonine kinase 1 (Akt) expression levels. However, the beneficial effects of EPO were attenuated by overexpression of TLR4. In addition, inhibition of PI3K/Akt signaling activity by treatment with LY294002 markedly reversed the protective effect of EPO on the AAC-induced MF. Taken together, the present study demonstrated that EPO may have a critical role against MF by activating PI3K/Akt signaling and by down-regulating TLR4 expression, thereby inhibiting the release of TGF-β1, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-17A, MMP-9 and MMP-2. These findings suggest that the PI3K/Akt/TLR4 signaling pathway is associated with the anti-inflammatory effects of EPO and may play a role in attenuating AAC-induced MF.

Liuweiwuling tablets attenuate BDL-induced hepatic fibrosis via modulation of TGF-β/Smad and NF-κB signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Liuweiwuling (LWWL) tablets contain a six-herb Chinese formula and are commonly prescribed to facilitate nourishment of the liver and kidneys, clear away toxic materials and activate blood circulation. Administration of LWWL is well known for its protective effects on the liver and its capacity to confer long-term stability in patients exhibiting reduced transaminase levels. Clinical studies have reported that LWWL can also be used for the treatment of liver fibrosis with associated treatment regimens resulting in a concomitant reduction in transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) levels in the serum of patients with hepatic fibrosis. TGF-β1 plays a prominent role in stimulating liver fibrogenesis and this effect is mediated by myofibroblasts (MFB) derived from hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). It is likely that this phenomenon underpins the antifibrotic effects associated with LWWL.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to investigate the antifibrotic effects and mechanisms pertaining to LWWL.

METHODS

Hepatic fibrosis was induced in rats following bile duct ligation (BDL). Rats that underwent BDL received daily gavage administration of colchicine (0.2mg/kg per day), LWWL (0.4, 1.6, 6.4g/kg per day) or PBS (for the control group). Pathological changes in hepatic tissue were examined using hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and sirius red staining. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to monitor α-SMA and type I collagen (Collagen I) protein expression. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and Western blot analyses were used to monitor the expression of genes and proteins in the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway, including TGF-β1, bone morphogenic protein and activin membrane-bound inhibitor (Bambi), Smad3, phosphorylated Smad3 (p-Smad3) and Smad7. We also monitored the expression of genes and proteins in the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway, including NF-κB p65, IκBα and phosphorylation of IκBα (p-IκBα), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 1β (IL-1β).

RESULTS

LWWL dose-dependently inhibited BDL-induced liver injury and hepatic fibrosis in rats. Furthermore, LWWL reduced liver tissue collagen deposition, hydroxyproline content, liver dysfunction and α-SMA expression in BDL-induced hepatic fibrosis rats. Moreover, LWWL markedly prevented activation of the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway by inhibiting expression of Smad2/3 and phosphorylation of Smad3, and upregulating the expression of Bambi and Smad7. In addition, LWWL regulated the expression of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB p65 and the phosphorylation of IκBα, and increasing the expression of IκBα.

CONCLUSIONS

LWWL can attenuate BDL-induced hepatic fibrosis in rats, and this effect may be due to modulation of the NF-κB-dependent inflammatory response and activation of HSC and TGF-β/Smad-mediated synthesis and degradation of Collagen I.

Protective effects of oxymatrine against lipopolysaccharide/D‑galactosamine‑induced acute liver failure through oxidative damage, via activation of Nrf2/HO‑1 and modulation of inflammatory TLR4‑signaling pathways

Oxymatrine has a variety of pharmacological functions, including anti-viral, anti-liver fibrotic, anti-cancer, anti‑bacterial, anti‑epidemic, analgesic, anti‑allergy and anti‑inflammatory properties. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of oxymatrine against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/D‑galactosamine (D‑GalN)‑induced acute liver failure and the associated underlying mechanisms. Mice were administrated 4 mg/kg LPS and 600 mg/kg D‑GalN. Then, mice in the Oxymatrine group were treated with 120 mg/kg of oxymatrine for 4 weeks. Oxymatrine treatment increased survival rate, decreased plasma aspartate transaminase and alanine aminotransferase activity, increased superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase and decreased malondialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor‑ and myeloperoxidase activities in mice with LPS/D‑GalN‑induced liver failure. Furthermore, Oxymatrine activated nuclear factor erythroid 2‑related factor (Nrf) 2 and heme oxygenase (HO)‑1 protein expression, and suppressed Toll like receptor (TLR)4, myeloid differentiation primary response 88 and nuclear factor‑κB protein expression in mice LPS/D‑GalN mice. Overall, the present study suggests that oxymatrine effectively attenuates LPS/D‑GalN‑induced acute liver failure by oxidative damage via activation of Nrf2/HO‑1 and modulation of TLR4‑dependent inflammatory signaling pathways.