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Xie XD, Dong SS, Liu RJ, Shi LL, Zhu T. Mechanism of Efferocytosis in Determining Ischaemic Stroke Resolution-Diving into Microglia/Macrophage Functions and Therapeutic Modality. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04060-4. [PMID: 38409642 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04060-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
After ischaemic cerebral vascular injury, efferocytosis-a process known as the efficient clearance of apoptotic cells (ACs) by various phagocytes in both physiological and pathological states-is crucial for maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis and regaining prognosis. The mechanisms of efferocytosis in ischaemic stroke and its influence on preventing inflammation progression from secondary injury were still not fully understood, despite the fact that the fundamental process of efferocytosis has been described in a series of phases, including AC recognition, phagocyte engulfment, and subsequent degradation. The genetic reprogramming of macrophages and brain-resident microglia after an ischaemic stroke has been equated by some researchers to that of the peripheral blood and brain. Based on previous studies, some molecules, such as signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARG), CD300A, and sigma non-opioid intracellular receptor 1 (SIGMAR1), were discovered to be largely associated with aspects of apoptotic cell elimination and accompanying neuroinflammation, such as inflammatory cytokine release, phenotype transformation, and suppressing of antigen presentation. Exacerbated stroke outcomes are brought on by defective efferocytosis and improper modulation of pertinent signalling pathways in blood-borne macrophages and brain microglia, which also results in subsequent tissue inflammatory damage. This review focuses on recent researches which contain a number of recently discovered mechanisms, such as studies on the relationship between benign efferocytosis and the regulation of inflammation in ischaemic stroke, the roles of some risk factors in disease progression, and current immune approaches that aim to promote efferocytosis to treat some autoimmune diseases. Understanding these pathways provides insight into novel pathophysiological processes and fresh characteristics, which can be used to build cerebral ischaemia targeting techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Di Xie
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, China
| | - Shan-Shan Dong
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, China
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Ru-Juan Liu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, China
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Liu-Liu Shi
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Ting Zhu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Institute of Neuroregeneration & Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, China.
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Wen Q, Zha F, Shan L, Zhang S, Xiao P, Zhang C, Yu H, Wang Y. Electroacupuncture attenuates middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced learning and memory impairment by regulating microglial polarization in hippocampus. Int J Neurosci 2024:1-13. [PMID: 38315119 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2024.2313664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As a traditional medical therapy, electroacupuncture (EA) has been demonstrated to have beneficial effects on ischemic stroke-induced cognitive impairment. However, the underlying mechanism is largely unclear. METHODS Adult rats received occlusion of the middle cerebral artery and reperfusion (MCAO/R) to establish the ischemic stroke model. Morris water maze test was performed following EA stimulation at the GV20, PC6, and KI1 acupoints in rats to test the learning and memory ability. Western blot, immunofluorescent staining, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were conducted to assess the cellular and molecular mechanisms. RESULTS EA stimulation attenuated neurological deficits. In the Morris water maze test, EA treatment ameliorated the MCAO/R-induced learning and memory impairment. Moreover, we observed that MCAO/R induced microglial activation and polarization in the ischemic hippocampus, whereas, EA treatment dampened microglial activation and inhibited M1 microglial polarization but enhanced M2 microglial polarization. EA treatment inhibited the increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines and enhanced the increased expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Finally, we found that EA treatment dampened microglial p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation. CONCLUSION Collectively, our data suggested that EA treatment ameliorated cognitive impairment induced by MCAO/R and the underlying mechanism may be p38-mediated microglia polarization and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Wen
- The Fourth Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
- Department of Rehabilitation, Shenzhen Dapeng New District Nanao People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Fubing Zha
- Department of Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Linlin Shan
- Department of Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shaohua Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Shenzhen Dapeng New District Nanao People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Peng Xiao
- Department of Rehabilitation, Shenzhen Dapeng New District Nanao People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Chunxia Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Shenzhen Dapeng New District Nanao People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Haibo Yu
- The Fourth Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yulong Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
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Lin T, Jiang D, Chen W, Lin JS, Zhang X, Chen C, Hsu C, Lai L, Chen P, Yang K, Sansing LH, Chang C. Trained immunity induced by high-salt diet impedes stroke recovery. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e57164. [PMID: 37965920 PMCID: PMC10702837 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202357164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
A high-salt diet (HSD) elicits sustained sterile inflammation and worsens tissue injury. However, how this occurs after stroke, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, remains unknown. Here, we report that HSD impairs long-term brain recovery after intracerebral hemorrhage, a severe form of stroke, despite salt withdrawal prior to the injury. Mechanistically, HSD induces innate immune priming and training in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) by downregulation of NR4a family and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. This training compromises alternative activation of monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) without altering the initial inflammatory responses of the stroke brain. Healthy mice transplanted with bone marrow from HSD-fed mice retain signatures of reduced MDM reparative functions, further confirming a persistent form of innate immune memory that originates in the bone marrow. Loss of NR4a1 in macrophages recapitulates HSD-induced negative impacts on stroke outcomes while gain of NR4a1 enables stroke recovery in HSD animals. Together, we provide the first evidence that links HSD-induced innate immune memory to the acquisition of persistent dysregulated inflammatory responses and unveils NR4a1 as a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tze‐Yen Lin
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Danye Jiang
- Department of NeurologyMcGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center in HoustonHoustonTXUSA
| | - Wan‐Ru Chen
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
- School of MedicineNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Jhih Syuan Lin
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Xin‐Yu Zhang
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chih‐Hung Chen
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chia‐Lang Hsu
- Department of Medical ResearchNational Taiwan University HospitalTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Liang‐Chuan Lai
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Ping‐Hung Chen
- Department and Graduate Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Kai‐Chien Yang
- Department and Graduate Institute of PharmacologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Lauren H Sansing
- Department of NeurologyYale University School of MedicineNew HavenCTUSA
| | - Che‐Feng Chang
- Department and Graduate Institute of PhysiologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
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Chen H, Guo Z, Sun Y, Dai X. The immunometabolic reprogramming of microglia in Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Int 2023; 171:105614. [PMID: 37748710 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2023.105614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder (NDD). In the central nervous system (CNS), immune cells like microglia could reprogram intracellular metabolism to alter or exert cellular immune functions in response to environmental stimuli. In AD, microglia could be activated and differentiated into pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory phenotypes, and these differences in cellular phenotypes resulted in variance in cellular energy metabolism. Considering the enormous energy requirement of microglia for immune functions, the changes in mitochondria-centered energy metabolism and substrates of microglia are crucial for the cellular regulation of immune responses. Here we reviewed the mechanisms of microglial metabolic reprogramming by analyzing their flexible metabolic patterns and changes that occurred in their metabolism during the development of AD. Further, we summarized the role of drugs in modulating immunometabolic reprogramming to prevent neuroinflammation, which may shed light on a new research direction for AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China
| | - Zichen Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China
| | - Yaxuan Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China
| | - Xueling Dai
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functional Food, College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing, 100023, China.
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Ahmed-Farid OA, Abdelrazek AM, Elwakel H, Mohamed MM. Hordeum vulgare ethanolic extract mitigates high salt-induced cerebellum damage via attenuation of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurochemical alterations in hypertensive rats. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:2427-2442. [PMID: 37646962 PMCID: PMC10504167 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-023-01277-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
High salt intake increases inflammatory and oxidative stress responses and causes an imbalance of neurotransmitters involved in the pathogenesis of hypertension that is related to the onset of cerebral injury. Using natural compounds that target oxidative stress and neuroinflammation pathways remains a promising approach for treating neurological diseases. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seeds are rich in protein, fiber, minerals, and phenolic compounds, that exhibit potent neuroprotective effects in various neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, this work aimed to investigate the efficacy of barley ethanolic extract against a high salt diet (HSD)-induced cerebellum injury in hypertensive rats. Forty-eight Wistar rats were divided into six groups. Group (I) was the control. The second group, the HSD group, was fed a diet containing 8% NaCl. Groups II and III were fed an HSD and simultaneously treated with either amlodipine (1 mg /kg b.wt p.o) or barley extract (1000 mg /kg b.wt p.o) for five weeks. Groups IV and V were fed HSD for five weeks, then administered with either amlodipine or barley extract for another five weeks. The results revealed that barley treatment significantly reduced blood pressure and effectively reduced oxidative stress and inflammation in rat's cerebellum as indicated by higher GSH and nitric oxide levels and lower malondialdehyde, TNF-α, and IL-1ß levels. Additionally, barley restored the balance of neurotransmitters and improved cellular energy performance in the cerebellum of HSD-fed rats. These findings suggest that barley supplementation exerted protective effects against high salt-induced hypertension by an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilating effects and restoring neurochemical alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. A. Ahmed-Farid
- Department of Physiology, Egyptian Drug Authority, Giza, 12553 Egypt
| | | | - Hend Elwakel
- Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Qualubya, Egypt
| | - Maha M. Mohamed
- Home Economic Department, Faculty of Women for Arts Science and Education, Ain Shams University, Asmaa Fahmi, Al Golf, Nasr City, 11757 Cairo Governorate Egypt
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6
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Beaver JN, Weber BL, Ford MT, Anello AE, Ruffin KM, Kassis SK, Gilman TL. Generalization of contextual fear is sex-specifically affected by high salt intake. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0286221. [PMID: 37440571 PMCID: PMC10343085 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
A hallmark symptom of many anxiety disorders, and multiple neuropsychiatric disorders more broadly, is generalization of fearful responses to non-fearful stimuli. Anxiety disorders are often comorbid with cardiovascular diseases. One established, and modifiable, risk factor for cardiovascular diseases is salt intake. Yet, investigations into how excess salt consumption affects anxiety-relevant behaviors remains little explored. Moreover, no studies have yet assessed how high salt intake influences generalization of fear. Here, we used adult C57BL/6J mice of both sexes to evaluate the influence of two or six weeks of high salt consumption (4.0% NaCl), compared to controls (0.4% NaCl), on contextual fear acquisition, expression, and generalization. Further, we measured osmotic and physiological stress by quantifying serum osmolality and corticosterone levels, respectively. Consuming excess salt did not influence contextual fear acquisition nor discrimination between the context used for training and a novel, neutral context when training occurred 48 prior to testing. However, when a four week delay between training and testing was employed to induce natural fear generalization processes, we found that high salt intake selectively increases contextual fear generalization in females, but the same diet reduces contextual fear generalization in males. These sex-specific effects were independent of any changes in serum osmolality nor corticosterone levels, suggesting the behavioral shifts are a consequence of more subtle, neurophysiologic changes. This is the first evidence of salt consumption influencing contextual fear generalization, and adds information about sex-specific effects of salt that are largely missing from current literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin N. Beaver
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Brady L. Weber
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Matthew T. Ford
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Anna E. Anello
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Kaden M. Ruffin
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Sarah K. Kassis
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - T. Lee Gilman
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- Healthy Communities Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
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7
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McColl ER, Henderson JT, Piquette-Miller M. Dysregulation of Amino Acid Transporters in a Rat Model of TLR7-Mediated Maternal Immune Activation. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1857. [PMID: 37514044 PMCID: PMC10385561 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15071857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Maternal immune activation (MIA) during pregnancy is linked to neurodevelopmental disorders in humans. Similarly, the TLR7 agonist imiquimod alters neurodevelopment in rodents. While the mechanisms underlying MIA-mediated neurodevelopmental changes are unknown, they could involve dysregulation of amino acid transporters essential for neurodevelopment. Therefore, we sought to determine the nature of such transporter changes in both imiquimod-treated rats and human placentas during infection. Pregnant rats received imiquimod on gestational day (GD)14. Transporter expression was measured in placentas and fetal brains via qPCR (GD14.5) and immunoblotting (GD16). To monitor function, fetal brain amino acid levels were measured by HPLC on GD16. Gene expression in the cortex of female fetal brains was further examined by RNAseq on GD19. In human placentas, suspected active infection was associated with decreased ASCT1 and SNAT2 protein expression. Similarly, in imiquimod-treated rats, ASCT1 and SNAT2 protein was also decreased in male placentas, while EAAT2 was decreased in female placentas. CAT3 was increased in female fetal brains. Consistent with this, imiquimod altered amino acid levels in fetal brains, while RNAseq demonstrated changes in expression of several genes implicated in autism. Thus, imiquimod alters amino acid transporter levels in pregnant rats, and similar changes occur in human placentas during active infection. This suggests that changes in expression of amino acid transporters may contribute to effects mediated by MIA toward altered neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliza R McColl
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Jeffrey T Henderson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Micheline Piquette-Miller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
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8
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Farid OAA, Abd-elrazek A, Elwakel H, Mohamed MM. Hordeum vulgare ethanolic extract mitigates high salt-induced cerebellum damage via attenuation of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurochemical alterations in hypertensive rats.. [DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2576993/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
High salt intake increases inflammatory and oxidative stress responses and causes an imbalance of neurotransmitters involved in the pathogenesis of hypertension that is related to the onset of cerebral injury. Using natural compounds that target oxidative stress and neuroinflammation pathways remains a promising approach for treating neurological diseases. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seeds are rich in protein, fiber, minerals, and phenolic compounds, that exhibit potent neuroprotective effects in various neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, this work aimed to investigate the efficacy of barley ethanolic extract against a high salt diet (HSD)-induced cerebellum injury in hypertensive rats. Forty-eight Wistar rats were divided into six groups. Group (I) was the control. The second group, the HSD group, was fed a diet containing 8% NaCl. Groups II and III were fed an HSD and simultaneously treated with either amlodipine (1 mg /kg b.wt p.o) or barley extract (1000 mg /kg b.wt p.o) for five weeks. Groups IV and V were fed HSD for five weeks, then administered with either amlodipine or barley extract for another five weeks. The results revealed that barley treatment significantly reduced blood pressure and effectively reduced oxidative stress and inflammation in rat's cerebellum as indicated by higher GSH and nitric oxide levels and lower malondialdehyde, TNF-α, and IL-1ß levels. Additionally, barley restored the balance of neurotransmitters and improved cellular energy performance in the cerebellum of HSD-fed rats. These findings suggest that barley supplementation exerted protective effects against high salt-induced hypertension by an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilating effects and restoring neurochemical alterations.
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9
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Zhang T, Wu J, Yao X, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Han Y, Wu Y, Xu Z, Lan J, Han S, Zou H, Sun Q, Wang D, Zhang J, Wang G. The Aldose Reductase Inhibitor Epalrestat Maintains Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity by Enhancing Endothelial Cell Function during Cerebral Ischemia. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:3741-3757. [PMID: 36940077 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03304-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
Excessive activation of aldose reductase (AR) in the brain is a risk factor for aggravating cerebral ischemia injury. Epalrestat is the only AR inhibitor with proven safety and efficacy, which is used in the clinical treatment of diabetic neuropathy. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the neuroprotection of epalrestat remain unknown in the ischemic brain. Recent studies have found that blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage was mainly caused by increased apoptosis and autophagy of brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVECs) and decreased expression of tight junction proteins. Thus, we hypothesized that the protective effect of epalrestat is mainly related to regulating the survival of BMVECs and tight junction protein levels after cerebral ischemia. To test this hypothesis, a mouse model of cerebral ischemia was established by permanent middle cerebral artery ligation (pMCAL), and the mice were treated with epalrestat or saline as a control. Epalrestat reduced the ischemic volume, enhanced BBB function, and improved the neurobehavior after cerebral ischemia. In vitro studies revealed that epalrestat increased the expression of tight junction proteins, and reduced the levels of cleaved-caspase3 and LC3 proteins in mouse BMVECs (bEnd.3 cells) exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). In addition, bicalutamide (an AKT inhibitor) and rapamycin (an mTOR inhibitor) increased the epalrestat-induced reduction in apoptosis and autophagy related protein levels in bEnd.3 cells with OGD treatment. Our findings suggest that epalrestat improves BBB function, which may be accomplished by reducing AR activation, promoting tight junction proteins expression, and upregulating AKT/mTOR signaling pathway to inhibit apoptosis and autophagy in BMVECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongshuai Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jinrong Wu
- Department of Anaesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Xinmin Yao
- Traditional Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150040, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yao Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yang Han
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yun Wu
- The Medical Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Zhenyu Xu
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jing Lan
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Siyu Han
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Haifeng Zou
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Qixu Sun
- Department of Gastroenterology, Penglai People's Hospital, Yantai, 264117, Shandong, China
| | - Dandan Wang
- Wu Lian De Memorial Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China.
| | - Jingyu Zhang
- The Medical Department of Neurology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, Heilongjiang, China.
| | - Guangyou Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China.
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10
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Di Santo C, La Russa D, Greco R, Persico A, Zanaboni AM, Bagetta G, Amantea D. Characterization of the Involvement of Tumour Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α-Stimulated Gene 6 (TSG-6) in Ischemic Brain Injury Caused by Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mouse. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065800. [PMID: 36982872 PMCID: PMC10051687 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The identification of novel targets to modulate the immune response triggered by cerebral ischemia is crucial to promote the development of effective stroke therapeutics. Since tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α-stimulated gene 6 (TSG-6), a hyaluronate (HA)-binding protein, is involved in the regulation of immune and stromal cell functions in acute neurodegeneration, we aimed to characterize its involvement in ischemic stroke. Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (1 h MCAo, followed by 6 to 48 of reperfusion) in mice resulted in a significant elevation in cerebral TSG-6 protein levels, mainly localized in neurons and myeloid cells of the lesioned hemisphere. These myeloid cells were clearly infiltrating from the blood, strongly suggesting that brain ischemia also affects TSG-6 in the periphery. Accordingly, TSG-6 mRNA expression was elevated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients 48 h after ischemic stroke onset, and TSG-6 protein expression was higher in the plasma of mice subjected to 1 h MCAo followed by 48 h of reperfusion. Surprisingly, plasma TSG-6 levels were reduced in the acute phase (i.e., within 24 h of reperfusion) when compared to sham-operated mice, supporting the hypothesis of a detrimental role of TSG-6 in the early reperfusion stage. Accordingly, systemic acute administration of recombinant mouse TSG-6 increased brain levels of the M2 marker Ym1, providing a significant reduction in the brain infarct volume and general neurological deficits in mice subjected to transient MCAo. These findings suggest a pivotal role of TSG-6 in ischemic stroke pathobiology and underscore the clinical relevance of further investigating the mechanisms underlying its immunoregulatory role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Di Santo
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Daniele La Russa
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Rosaria Greco
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, PV, Italy
| | | | | | - Giacinto Bagetta
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Diana Amantea
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
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11
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Gao X, Wang Z, Du L. Glial Cells and Itch: Possible Targets for Novel Antipruritic Therapies. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:331-339. [PMID: 36655585 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Glial cells, which are the non-neuronal cells of the nervous system, play essential roles in brain development, homeostasis, and diseases. Glial cells have attracted attention because of their active involvement in many neurological disorders. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in our understanding of the roles of glial cells in the pathogenesis of itch. Mechanistically, central and peripheral glial cells modulate acute and chronic pruritus via different mechanisms. In this review, we present the current knowledge about the involvement of glial cells in the modulation of itch processing and the mechanism of glial cell activation under itch stimuli. Targeting glial cells may provide novel approaches for itch therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Gao
- School of Basic Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhifei Wang
- School of Basic Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Lixia Du
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Basic Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
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12
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La Russa D, Di Santo C, Lizasoain I, Moraga A, Bagetta G, Amantea D. Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α-Stimulated Gene 6 (TSG-6): A Promising Immunomodulatory Target in Acute Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021162. [PMID: 36674674 PMCID: PMC9865344 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-stimulated gene 6 (TSG-6), the first soluble chemokine-binding protein to be identified in mammals, inhibits chemotaxis and transendothelial migration of neutrophils and attenuates the inflammatory response of dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, and T cells. This immunoregulatory protein is a pivotal mediator of the therapeutic efficacy of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC) in diverse pathological conditions, including neuroinflammation. However, TSG-6 is also constitutively expressed in some tissues, such as the brain and spinal cord, and is generally upregulated in response to inflammation in monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells, astrocytes, vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Due to its ability to modulate sterile inflammation, TSG-6 exerts protective effects in diverse degenerative and inflammatory diseases, including brain disorders. Emerging evidence provides insights into the potential use of TSG-6 as a peripheral diagnostic and/or prognostic biomarker, especially in the context of ischemic stroke, whereby the pathobiological relevance of this protein has also been demonstrated in patients. Thus, in this review, we will discuss the most recent data on the involvement of TSG-6 in neurodegenerative diseases, particularly focusing on relevant anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions. Furthermore, we will examine evidence suggesting novel therapeutic opportunities that can be afforded by modulating TSG-6-related pathways in neuropathological contexts and, most notably, in stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele La Russa
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Chiara Di Santo
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Ignacio Lizasoain
- Unidad de Investigación Neurovascular, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (Imas12), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Moraga
- Unidad de Investigación Neurovascular, Departamento de Farmacología y Toxicología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (Imas12), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Giacinto Bagetta
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Diana Amantea
- Section of Preclinical and Translational Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
- Correspondence:
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The Role of Aldose Reductase in Beta-Amyloid-Induced Microglia Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232315088. [PMID: 36499422 PMCID: PMC9739496 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232315088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of Alzheimer's disease has been associated with the accumulation of beta-amyloid (β-amyloid) plaques. These plaques activate microglia to secrete inflammatory molecules, which damage neurons in the brain. Thus, understanding the underlying mechanism of microglia activation can provide a therapeutic strategy for alleviating microglia-induced neuroinflammation. The aldose reductase (AR) enzyme catalyzes the reduction of glucose to sorbitol in the polyol pathway. In addition to mediating diabetic complications in hyperglycemic environments, AR also helps regulate inflammation in microglia. However, little is known about the role of AR in β-amyloid-induced inflammation in microglia and subsequent neuronal death. In this study, we confirmed that AR inhibition attenuates increased β-amyloid-induced reactive oxygen species and tumor necrosis factor α secretion by suppressing ERK signaling in BV2 cells. In addition, we are the first to report that AR inhibition reduced the phagocytotic capability and cell migration of BV2 cells in response to β-amyloid. To further investigate the protective role of the AR inhibitor sorbinil in neurons, we co-cultured β-amyloid-induced microglia with stem cell-induced neurons. sorbinil ameliorated neuronal damage in both cells in the co-culture system. In summary, our findings reveal AR regulation of microglia activation as a novel therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease.
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Qin C, Yang S, Chu YH, Zhang H, Pang XW, Chen L, Zhou LQ, Chen M, Tian DS, Wang W. Signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:215. [PMID: 35794095 PMCID: PMC9259607 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01064-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is caused primarily by an interruption in cerebral blood flow, which induces severe neural injuries, and is one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. Thus, it is of great necessity to further detailly elucidate the mechanisms of ischemic stroke and find out new therapies against the disease. In recent years, efforts have been made to understand the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke, including cellular excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, cell death processes, and neuroinflammation. In the meantime, a plethora of signaling pathways, either detrimental or neuroprotective, are also highly involved in the forementioned pathophysiology. These pathways are closely intertwined and form a complex signaling network. Also, these signaling pathways reveal therapeutic potential, as targeting these signaling pathways could possibly serve as therapeutic approaches against ischemic stroke. In this review, we describe the signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke and categorize them based on the pathophysiological processes they participate in. Therapeutic approaches targeting these signaling pathways, which are associated with the pathophysiology mentioned above, are also discussed. Meanwhile, clinical trials regarding ischemic stroke, which potentially target the pathophysiology and the signaling pathways involved, are summarized in details. Conclusively, this review elucidated potential molecular mechanisms and related signaling pathways underlying ischemic stroke, and summarize the therapeutic approaches targeted various pathophysiology, with particular reference to clinical trials and future prospects for treating ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Qin
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Sheng Yang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yun-Hui Chu
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Hang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xiao-Wei Pang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Lian Chen
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Luo-Qi Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Man Chen
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Dai-Shi Tian
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
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DeLong JH, Ohashi SN, O'Connor KC, Sansing LH. Inflammatory Responses After Ischemic Stroke. Semin Immunopathol 2022; 44:625-648. [PMID: 35767089 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-022-00943-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke generates an immune response that contributes to neuronal loss as well as tissue repair. This is a complex process involving a range of cell types and effector molecules and impacts tissues outside of the CNS. Recent reviews address specific aspects of this response, but several years have passed and important advances have been made since a high-level review has summarized the overall state of the field. The present review examines the initiation of the inflammatory response after ischemic stroke, the complex impacts of leukocytes on patient outcome, and the potential of basic science discoveries to impact the development of therapeutics. The information summarized here is derived from broad PubMed searches and aims to reflect recent research advances in an unbiased manner. We highlight valuable recent discoveries and identify gaps in knowledge that have the potential to advance our understanding of this disease and therapies to improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Howard DeLong
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sarah Naomi Ohashi
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kevin Charles O'Connor
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lauren Hachmann Sansing
- Departments of Neurology and Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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Li X, Alu A, Wei Y, Wei X, Luo M. The modulatory effect of high salt on immune cells and related diseases. Cell Prolif 2022; 55:e13250. [PMID: 35747936 PMCID: PMC9436908 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The adverse effect of excessive salt intake has been recognized in decades. Researchers have mainly focused on the association between salt intake and hypertension. However, studies in recent years have proposed the existence of extra-renal sodium storage and provided insight into the immunomodulatory function of sodium. OBJECTIVES In this review, we discuss the modulatory effects of high salt on various innate and adaptive immune cells and immune-regulated diseases. METHODS We identified papers through electronic searches of PubMed database from inception to March 2022. RESULTS An increasing body of evidence has demonstrated that high salt can modulate the differentiation, activation and function of multiple immune cells. Furthermore, a high-salt diet can increase tissue sodium concentrations and influence the immune responses in microenvironments, thereby affecting the development of immune-regulated diseases, including hypertension, multiple sclerosis, cancer and infections. These findings provide a novel mechanism for the pathology of certain diseases and indicate that salt might serve as a target or potential therapeutic agent in different disease contexts. CONCLUSION High salt has a profound impact on the differentiation, activation and function of multiple immune cells. Additionally, an HSD can modulate the development of various immune-regulated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Li
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Aqu Alu
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuquan Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiawei Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Min Luo
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Leal PEDPT, da Silva AA, Rocha-Gomes A, Riul TR, Cunha RA, Reichetzeder C, Villela DC. High-Salt Diet in the Pre- and Postweaning Periods Leads to Amygdala Oxidative Stress and Changes in Locomotion and Anxiety-Like Behaviors of Male Wistar Rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 15:779080. [PMID: 35058757 PMCID: PMC8763963 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.779080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
High-salt (HS) diets have recently been linked to oxidative stress in the brain, a fact that may be a precursor to behavioral changes, such as those involving anxiety-like behavior. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has evaluated the amygdala redox status after consuming a HS diet in the pre- or postweaning periods. This study aimed to evaluate the amygdala redox status and anxiety-like behaviors in adulthood, after inclusion of HS diet in two periods: preconception, gestation, and lactation (preweaning); and only after weaning (postweaning). Initially, 18 females and 9 male Wistar rats received a standard (n = 9 females and 4 males) or a HS diet (n = 9 females and 5 males) for 120 days. After mating, females continued to receive the aforementioned diets during gestation and lactation. Weaning occurred at 21-day-old Wistar rats and the male offspring were subdivided: control-control (C-C)—offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9–11), control-HS (C-HS)—offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9–11), HS-C—offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9–11), and HS-HS—offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9–11). At adulthood, the male offspring performed the elevated plus maze and open field tests. At 152-day-old Wistar rats, the offspring were euthanized and the amygdala was removed for redox state analysis. The HS-HS group showed higher locomotion and rearing frequency in the open field test. These results indicate that this group developed hyperactivity. The C-HS group had a higher ratio of entries and time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze test in addition to a higher head-dipping frequency. These results suggest less anxiety-like behaviors. In the analysis of the redox state, less activity of antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the amygdala were shown in the amygdala of animals that received a high-salt diet regardless of the period (pre- or postweaning). In conclusion, the high-salt diet promoted hyperactivity when administered in the pre- and postweaning periods. In animals that received only in the postweaning period, the addition of salt induced a reduction in anxiety-like behaviors. Also, regardless of the period, salt provided amygdala oxidative stress, which may be linked to the observed behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Ernesto de Pinho Tavares Leal
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
- Laboratório de Nutrição Experimental – LabNutrex, Departamento de Nutrição, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Alves da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
- Laboratório de Nutrição Experimental – LabNutrex, Departamento de Nutrição, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
| | - Arthur Rocha-Gomes
- Laboratório de Nutrição Experimental – LabNutrex, Departamento de Nutrição, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
| | - Tania Regina Riul
- Laboratório de Nutrição Experimental – LabNutrex, Departamento de Nutrição, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Nutrição, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
| | - Rennan Augusto Cunha
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
| | - Christoph Reichetzeder
- Department of Nutritional Toxicology, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- Christoph Reichetzeder,
| | - Daniel Campos Villela
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Daniel Campos Villela,
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Jobin K, Müller DN, Jantsch J, Kurts C. Sodium and its manifold impact on our immune system. Trends Immunol 2021; 42:469-479. [PMID: 33962888 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2021.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The Western diet is rich in salt, and a high salt diet (HSD) is suspected to be a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. It is now widely accepted that an experimental HSD can stimulate components of the immune system, potentially exacerbating certain autoimmune diseases, or alternatively, improving defenses against certain infections, such as cutaneous leishmaniasis. However, recent findings show that an experimental HSD may also aggravate other infections (e.g., pyelonephritis or systemic listeriosis). Here, we discuss the modulatory effects of a HSD on the microbiota, metabolic signaling, hormonal responses, local sodium concentrations, and their effects on various immune cell types in different tissues. We describe how these factors are integrated, resulting either in immune stimulation or suppression in various tissues and disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Jobin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Experimental Immunology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Würzburg Institute of Systems Immunology, Max-Planck Research Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Dominik N Müller
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center (ECRC), a cooperation of Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbruck Center for Molecular Medicine, and Max Delbruck Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany; Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jonathan Jantsch
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Regensburg and University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Christian Kurts
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Experimental Immunology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Hu M, Lin Y, Men X, Wang S, Sun X, Zhu Q, Lu D, Liu S, Zhang B, Cai W, Lu Z. High-salt diet downregulates TREM2 expression and blunts efferocytosis of macrophages after acute ischemic stroke. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:90. [PMID: 33845849 PMCID: PMC8040220 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background A high-salt diet (HSD) is one of the major risk factors for acute ischemic stroke (AIS). As a potential mechanism, surplus salt intake primes macrophages towards a proinflammatory phenotype. In this study, whether HSD could blunt the efferocytic capability of macrophages after ischemic stroke, thus exacerbating post-stroke neural inflammation, was investigated. Methods Wild-type male C57BL/6 mice were fed with fodder containing 8% sodium chloride for 4 weeks and subjected to transient middle cerebral occlusion (tMCAO). Disease severity, macrophage polarization as well as efferocytic capability were evaluated. Bone marrow-derived macrophages were cultured in vitro, and the impact of high salinity on their efferocytic activity, as well as their expression of phagocytic molecules, were analyzed. The relationships among sodium concentration, macrophage phenotype, and disease severity in AIS patients were explored. Results HSD-fed mice displayed increased infarct volume and aggravated neurological deficiency. Mice fed with HSD suffered exacerbated neural inflammation as shown by higher inflammatory mediator expression and immune cell infiltration levels. Infiltrated macrophages within stroke lesions in HSD-fed mice exhibited a shift towards proinflammatory phenotype and impaired efferocytic capability. As assessed with a PCR array, the expression of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), a receptor relevant to phagocytosis, was downregulated in high-salt-treated bone marrow-derived macrophages. Enhancement of TREM2 signaling restored the efferocytic capacity and cellular inflammation resolution of macrophages in a high salinity environment in vitro and in vivo. A high concentration of urine sodium in AIS patients was found to be correlated with lower TREM2 expression and detrimental stroke outcomes. Conclusions HSD inhibited the efferocytic capacity of macrophages by downregulating TREM2 expression, thus impeding inflammation resolution after ischemic stroke. Enhancing TREM2 signaling in monocytes/macrophages could be a promising therapeutic strategy to enhance efferocytosis and promote post-stroke inflammation resolution. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02144-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyan Hu
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinyao Lin
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuejiao Men
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Shisi Wang
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaobo Sun
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Zhu
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Danli Lu
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Sanxin Liu
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Bingjun Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Cai
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China. .,Center of Clinical Immunology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhengqi Lu
- Department of Neurology, Mental and Neurological Disease Research Center, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, 600 Tianhe Road, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510630, People's Republic of China.
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Inhibited CSF1R Alleviates Ischemia Injury via Inhibition of Microglia M1 Polarization and NLRP3 Pathway. Neural Plast 2020; 2020:8825954. [PMID: 32908485 PMCID: PMC7474788 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8825954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemia cerebral stroke is one of the common neurological diseases with severe inflammatory response and neuron death. The inhibition of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) which especially expressed in microglia/macrophage exerted neuroprotection in stroke. However, the underlying neuroinflammatory regulation effects of CSF1R in ischemia stroke are not clear. In this study, cerebral ischemia stroke mice model was established. The C57/B6J mice were administered with Ki20227, a CSF1R inhibitor, by gavage for 7 consecutive days (0.002 mg/kg/day) before modeling. The Rota-Rod test and neurobehavioral score test were investigated to assess neurobehavioral functions. The area of infarction was assessed by 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. The mRNA expressions of M1/M2 microglia markers were evaluated by real-time PCR. Immunofluorescence and Western blot were utilized to detect the changes of Iba1 and NLRP3 pathway proteins. Results showed that neurobehavioral function improvement was demonstrated by an increased stay time on the Rota-Rod test and a decreased neurobehavioral score in the Ki20227 treatment group. The area of infarction reduced in Ki20227 group when compared to the stroke group. Moreover, the mRNA expression of M1 microglia markers (TNF-α and iNOS) decreased while M2 microglia markers (IL-10 and Arg-1) increased. Meanwhile, compared to the stroke and stroke+PBS group, Ki20227 administration downregulated the expression of NLRP3, active caspase 1, and NF-κB protein in the ischemia penumbra of Ki20227 treatment group mice. In short, the CSF1R inhibitor, Ki20227, played vital neuroprotective roles in ischemia cerebral stroke mice, and the mechanisms may be via inhibiting microglia M1 polarization and NLRP3 inflammasome pathway activation. Our study provides a potential new target for the treatment of ischemic stroke injury.
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21
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Nista F, Gatto F, Albertelli M, Musso N. Sodium Intake and Target Organ Damage in Hypertension-An Update about the Role of a Real Villain. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E2811. [PMID: 32325839 PMCID: PMC7215960 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17082811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Salt intake is too high for safety nowadays. The main active ion in salt is sodium. The vast majority of scientific evidence points out the importance of sodium restriction for decreasing cardiovascular risk. International Guidelines recommend a large reduction in sodium consumption to help reduce blood pressure, organ damage, and cardiovascular risk. Regulatory authorities across the globe suggest a general restriction of sodium intake to prevent cardiovascular diseases. In spite of this seemingly unanimous consensus, some researchers claim to have evidence of the unhealthy effects of a reduction of sodium intake, and have data to support their claims. Evidence is against dissenting scientists, because prospective, observational, and basic research studies indicate that sodium is the real villain: actual sodium consumption around the globe is far higher than the safe range. Sodium intake is directly related to increased blood pressure, and independently to the enlargement of cardiac mass, with a possible independent role in inducing left ventricular hypertrophy. This may represent the basis of myocardial ischemia, congestive heart failure, and cardiac mortality. Although debated, a high sodium intake may induce initial renal damage and progression in both hypertensive and normotensive subjects. Conversely, there is general agreement about the adverse role of sodium in cerebrovascular disease. These factors point to the possible main role of sodium intake in target organ damage and cardiovascular events including mortality. This review will endeavor to outline the existing evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Natale Musso
- Unit of Hypertension, Clinical Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Ospedale Policlinico San Martino Genova, University of Genoa Medical School, 6-16132 Genoa, Italy; (F.N.); (F.G.); (M.A.)
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