Anti-inflammatory potential of Patrineolignan B isolated from Patrinia scabra in LPS-stimulated macrophages via inhibition of NF-κB, AP-1, and JAK/STAT pathways

Therapeutic, and pharmacological prospects of nutmeg seed: A comprehensive review for novel drug potential insights

Background and objectives

For centuries, plant seed extracts have been widely used and valued for their benefits. They have been used in food, perfumes, aromatherapy, and traditional medicine. These natural products are renowned for their therapeutic properties and are commonly used in medicinal treatments. Their significant pharmacological profiles provide an excellent hallmark for the prevention or treatment of various diseases. In this study, we comprehensively evaluated the biological and pharmacological properties of nutmeg seeds and explored their efficacy in treating various illnesses.

Method

Published articles in databases including Google Scholar, PubMed, Elsevier, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Wiley, were analyzed using keywords related to nutmeg seed. The searched keywords were chemical compounds, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antidiabetic, anticancer properties, and their protective mechanisms in cardiovascular and Alzheimer's diseases.

Results & discussion

Nutmeg seeds have been reported to have potent antimicrobial properties against a wide range of various bacteria and fungi, thus showing potential for combating microbial infections and promoting overall health. Furthermore, nutmeg extract effectively reduces oxidative stress and inflammation by improving the body's natural antioxidant defense mechanism. Nutmeg affected lipid peroxidation, reduced lipid oxidation, reduced low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and increased phospholipid and cholesterol excretion. In addition, nutmeg extract improves the modulation of cardiac metabolism, accelerates cardiac conductivity and ventricular contractility, and prevents cell apoptosis. This study elucidated the psychotropic, narcotic, antidepressant, and anxiogenic effects of nutmeg seeds and their potential as a pharmaceutical medicine. Notably, despite its sedative and toxic properties, nutmeg ingestion alone did not cause death or life-threatening effects within the dosage range of 20-80 g powder. However, chemical analysis of nutmeg extracts identified over 50 compounds, including flavonoids, alkaloids, and polyphenolic compounds, which exhibit antioxidant properties and can be used as phytomedicines. Moreover, the exceptional pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of nutmeg have been found different for different administration routes, yet, more clinical trials are still needed.

Conclusion

Understanding the chemical composition and pharmacological properties of nutmeg holds promise for novel drug discovery and therapeutic advancements. Nutmeg seed offers therapeutic and novel drug prospects that can revolutionize medicine. By delving into their pharmacological properties, we can uncover the vast potential possibilities of this natural wonder.

Type I Cystatin Derived from Cysticercus pisiformis-Stefins, Suppresses LPS-Mediated Inflammatory Response in RAW264.7 Cells

Cysticercus pisiformis is a kind of tapeworm larvae of Taenia pisiformis, which parasitizes the liver envelope, omentum, mesentery, and rectum of rodents such as rabbits. Cysteine protease inhibitors derived from helminth were immunoregulatory molecules of intermediate hosts and had an immunomodulatory function that regulates the production of inflammatory factors. Thus, in the present research, the recombinant Stefin of C. pisiformis was confirmed to have the potential to fight inflammation in LPS-Mediated RAW264.7 murine macrophages. CCK8 test showed that rCpStefin below 50 μg/mL concentration did not affect cellular viability. Moreover, the NO production level determined by the Griess test was decreased. In addition, the secretion levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α as measured by ELISA were decreased. Furthermore, it exerted anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing the production of proinflammatory cytokines and proinflammatory mediators, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 at the gene transcription level, as measured by qRT-PCR. Therefore, Type I cystatin derived from C. pisiformis suppresses the LPS-Mediated inflammatory response of the intermediate host and is a potential candidate for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Macrophage polarization in spinal cord injury repair and the possible role of microRNAs: A review

The prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of spinal cord injury (SCI) have always posed significant medical challenges. After mechanical injury, disturbances in microcirculation, edema formation, and the generation of free radicals lead to additional damage, impeding effective repair processes and potentially exacerbating further dysfunction. In this context, inflammatory responses, especially the activation of macrophages, play a pivotal role. Different phenotypes of macrophages have distinct effects on inflammation. Activation of classical macrophage cells (M1) promotes inflammation, while activation of alternative macrophage cells (M2) inhibits inflammation. The polarization of macrophages is crucial for disease healing. A non-coding RNA, known as microRNA (miRNA), governs the polarization of macrophages, thereby reducing inflammation following SCI and facilitating functional recovery. This study elucidates the inflammatory response to SCI, focusing on the infiltration of immune cells, specifically macrophages. It examines their phenotype and provides an explanation of their polarization mechanisms. Finally, this paper introduces several well-known miRNAs that contribute to macrophage polarization following SCI, including miR-155, miR-130a, and miR-27 for M1 polarization, as well as miR-22, miR-146a, miR-21, miR-124, miR-223, miR-93, miR-132, and miR-34a for M2 polarization. The emphasis is placed on their potential therapeutic role in SCI by modulating macrophage polarization, as well as the present developments and obstacles of miRNA clinical therapy.

Zearalenone Exposure Disrupts STAT-ISG15 in Rat Colon: A Potential Linkage between Zearalenone and Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Zearalenone (ZEN), a prevalent mycotoxin contaminating food and known for its intestinal toxicity, has been suggested as a potential risk factor for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), although the exact relationship between ZEN exposure and IBD remains unclear. In this study, we established a rat model of colon toxicity induced by ZEN exposure to investigate the key targets of ZEN-induced colon toxicity and explore the underlying connection between ZEN exposure and IBD. Histological staining of the rat colon revealed significant pathological changes resulting from ZEN exposure (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the proteomic analysis demonstrated a notable upregulation of protein expression levels, specifically STAT2 (0.12 ± 0.0186), STAT6 (0.36 ± 0.0475) and ISG15 (0.43 ± 0.0226) in the rat colon (p < 0.05). Utilizing bioinformatics analysis, we combined ZEN exposure and IBD clinical sample databases to reveal that ZEN exposure may increase the risk of IBD through activation of the STAT-ISG15 pathway. This study identified novel targets for ZEN-induced intestinal toxicity, providing the basis for further study of ZEN exposure to IBD.

PRMT5 inhibition ameliorates inflammation and promotes the osteogenic differentiation of LPS‑induced periodontal stem cells via STAT3/NF‑κB signaling

It has been reported that protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) serves a significant role in osteogenic differentiation and inflammatory response. Nevertheless, its role in periodontitis as well as its underlying mechanism remain to be elucidated. The aim of the present study was to explore the role of PRMT5 in periodontitis and whether PRMT5 could reduce liposaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation of human periodontal ligament stem cells (hPDLSCs) and promote osteogenic differentiation through STAT3/NF-κB signaling. In the current study, the expression levels of PRMT5 were determined in LPS-induced hPDLSCs by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blot analysis. ELISA and western blot analysis were employed to assess the secretion and expression levels of inflammatory factors, respectively. The osteogenic differentiation and mineralization potential of hPDLSCs were evaluated using alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity assay, Alizarin red staining and western blot analysis. Additionally, western blot analysis was applied to determine the expression levels of the STAT3/NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins. The results showed that the expression levels of PRMT5 were significantly enhanced in LPS-induced hPDLSCs. Additionally, PRMT5 knockdown reduced the contents of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2. PRMT5 depletion also enhanced ALP activity, improved the mineralization ability and upregulated bone morphogenetic protein 2, osteocalcin and runt-related transcription factor 2 in LPS-induced hPDLSCs. Furthermore, PRMT5 knockdown inhibited inflammation and promoted the osteogenic differentiation of hPDLSCs via blocking the activation of the STAT3/NF-κB signaling pathway. In conclusion, PRMT5 inhibition suppressed LPS-induced inflammation and accelerated osteogenic differentiation in hPDLSCs via regulating STAT3/NF-κB signaling, thus providing a potential targeted therapy for the improvement of periodontitis.

PPARα alleviates inflammation via inhibiting NF-κB/Rel pathway in Vibrio splendidus challenged Apostichopus japonicus

Organisms trigger pro-inflammatory responses to resist the invasion of foreign pathogens in the early infection stage. However, excessive or chronic inflammation can also cause several diseases. We previously validated IL-17 from sea cucumbers mediated inflammatory response by the IL-17R-TRAF6 axis. But the anti-inflammatory effect was largely unknown in the species. In this study, the conserved PPARα gene was obtained from Apostichopus japonicus by RNA-seq and RACE approaches. The expression of AjPPARα was found to be significantly induced at the late stage of infection not only in Vibrio splendidus-challenged sea cucumbers, but also in LPS-exposed coelomocytes, which was negative correlation to that of AjIL-17 and AjNLRP3. Both silencing AjPPARα by specific siRNA and treatment with AjPAPRα inhibitor MK-886 could significantly upregulate the transcriptional levels of pro-inflammatory factors the AjIL-17 and AjNLRP3. The infiltration of inflammatory cells and tissues damage were also detected in the body walls in the same condition. In contrast, AjPAPRα agonist of WY14643 treatment could alleviate the V. splendidus-induced tissue injury. To further explore the molecular mechanism of AjPPARα-mediated anti-inflammatory in A. japonicus, the expression of the transcriptional factors of AjStat5 and AjRel (subunit of NF-κB) were investigated under AjPPARα aberrant expression conditions and found that AjRel exhibited a negative regulatory relationship to AjPPARα. Furthermore, silencing AjRel was led to down-regulation of AjIL-17 and AjNLRP3. Taken together, our results supported that AjPPARα exerted anti-inflammatory effects through inhibiting AjRel in response to V. splendidus infection.

Type I Cystatin Derived from Fasciola gigantica Suppresses Macrophage-Mediated Inflammatory Responses

There is an inverse relationship between the high incidence of helminth infection and the low incidence of inflammatory disease. Hence, it may be that helminth molecules have anti-inflammatory effects. Helminth cystatins are being extensively studied for anti-inflammatory potential. Therefore, in this study, the recombinant type I cystatin (stefin-1) of Fasciola gigantica (rFgCyst) was verified to have LPS-activated anti-inflammatory potential, including in human THP-1-derived macrophages and RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. The results from the MTT assay suggest that rFgCyst did not alter cell viability; moreover, it exerted anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing the production of proinflammatory cytokines and mediators, including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 at the gene transcription and protein expression levels, as determined by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. Further, the secretion levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α determined by ELISA and the NO production level determined by the Griess test were decreased. Furthermore, in Western blot analysis, the anti-inflammatory effects involved the downregulation of pIKKα/β, pIκBα, and pNF-κB in the NF-κB signaling pathway, hence reducing the translocation from the cytosol into the nucleus of pNF-κB, which subsequently turned on the gene of proinflammatory molecules. Therefore, cystatin type 1 of F. gigantica is a potential candidate for inflammatory disease treatment.

Synthesis and characterization of biologically active flurbiprofen amide derivatives as selective prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase II inhibitors: In vivo anti-inflammatory activity and molecular docking

A novel series of twenty two flurbiprofen amides (1-22) were designed and synthesized in good to excellent yields by reacting flurbiprofen acid with various aromatic/aliphatic primary amines in the presence of 1,1‑carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) in basic medium using acetonitrile as solvent. Structures of the synthesized derivatives were elucidated with the help of HR-ESI-MS, ¹H-, and ¹³C NMR spectroscopy and finally screened them for their in-vivo anti-inflammatory potential using carrageenan induced mice paw oedema assay. Among the series, four compounds (8, 14, 15, and 20) displayed excellent activity ranging from 59.0 to 77.7 % decrease, while eight compounds (1, 3, 7, 10, 12, 13, 17, and 18) exhibited good activity in the decrease range of 37.0-50.0 %. Additionally, four compounds (2, 6, 16, and 22) attributed less activity, while the remaining six compounds (4, 5, 9, 11, 19, and 21) were found to be inactive. Furthermore, the In-silico studies were executed on the synthesized derivatives in order to explain the binding interface of compounds with the active sites of prostaglandin endoperoxide-synthase II enzyme.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Garcinol Extracted from Garcinia dulcis via Modulating NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Garcinia is a significant medicinal plant with many beneficial phytoconstituents, including garcinol. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of garcinol isolated from Garcinia dulcis fruit in LPS-activated THP-1 and Raw 264.7 macrophages. The results demonstrated that the low concentration of garcinol did not alter cell viability. Furthermore, co-incubation of garcinol with LPS inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1β, and pro-inflammatory mediators, including iNOS and COX-2 at the mRNA and protein expression levels. Garcinol also decreased the secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, PGE2, and NO. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effects involved an alteration in the NF-κB signaling pathway. Downregulation of pIKKα/β, pIκBα, and pNF-κB was observed, hence reducing the translocation of pNF-κB from the cytosol into the nucleus, which subsequently decreased the production of pro-inflammatory molecules. Therefore, garcinol isolated from Garcinia dulcis is a potential candidate as an anti-inflammatory agent for inflammation-related disease treatment.

Two Pairs of 7,7'-Cyclolignan Enantiomers with Anti-Inflammatory Activities from Perilla frutescens

Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. (Labiatae), a medicinal plant, has been widely used for the therapy of multiple diseases since about 1800 years ago. It has been demonstrated that the extracts of P. frutescens exert significant anti-inflammatory effects. In this research, two pairs of 7,7′-cyclolignan enantiomers, possessing a cyclobutane moiety, (+)/(−)-perfrancin [(+)/(−)-1] and (+)/(−)-magnosalin [(+)/(−)-2], were separated from P. frutescens leaves. The present study achieved the chiral separation and determined the absolute configuration of (±)-1 and (±)-2. Compounds (+)-1 and (−)-1 have notable anti-inflammatory effects by reducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors (NO, TNF-α and IL-6) and the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators (iNOS and COX-2). These findings indicate that cyclolignans are effective substances of P. frutescens with anti-inflammatory activity. The present study partially elucidates the mechanisms underlying the effects of P. frutescens.

Concerted regulation of OPG/RANKL/ NF‑κB/MMP-13 trajectories contribute to ameliorative capability of prodigiosin and/or low dose γ-radiation against adjuvant- induced arthritis in rats

BACKGROUND

Prodigiosin (PDG) is a microbial red dye with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, although its effect on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remains uncertain. Also, multiple doses of low dose γ- radiation (LDR) have been observed to be as a successful intervention for RA. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the ameliorative potential of PDG and/or LDR on adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) in rats.

METHODS

The anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects of PDG and/or LDR were examined in vitro and in vivo, respectively. In the AIA model, the arthritic indexes, paw swelling degrees, body weight gain, and histopathological assessment in AIA rats were assayed. The impact of PDG (200 µg/kg; p.o) and/or LDR (0.5 Gy) on the levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-18, IL-17A, and IL-10) as well as the regulation of osteoprotegrin (OPG)/ receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)/ nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/MMP-13 pathways was determined. Methotrexate (MTX; 0.05 mg/kg; twice/week, i.p) was administered concurrently as a standard anti-arthritic drug.

RESULTS

PDG and/or LDR markedly diminished the arthritic indexes, paw edema, weigh loss in AIA rats, alleviated the pathological alterations in joints, reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-18, IL-17A, and RANKL in serum and synovial tissues, while increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and OPG levels. Moreover, PDG and/or LDR down-regulated the expression of RANKL, NF-κBp65, MMP13, caspase-3, and decreased the RANKL/OPG ratio, whereas OPG and collagen II were enhanced in synovial tissues.

CONCLUSION

PDG and/or LDR exhibited obvious anti-RA activity on AIA.

Kaempferol 3-O-(2G-glucosylrutinoside)-7-O-glucoside isolated from the flowers of Hosta plantaginea exerts anti-inflammatory activity via suppression of NF-κB, MAPKs and Akt pathways in RAW 264.7 cells

Kaempferol 3-O-(2^G-glucosylrutinoside)-7-O-glucoside (KGG) has isolated from Hosta plantaginea flowers and possessed an inhibitory effect on cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), could be effective in inhibiting inflammation. However, the anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of KGG remain unknown. In this study, for the first time, the anti-inflammatory effect of KGG and its potential molecular mechanisms were explored in cells. KGG had no cytotoxicity at concentrations of 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 μM by Cell Counting kit-8 assay in RAW 264.7 cells. Besides, KGG concentration-dependently (1.25, 2.5, and 5 μM) inhibited secretions of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and IL-6 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Western blot showed that the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) p65, inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB), p38 MAPK, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), and protein kinase B (Akt), together with inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and COX-2 were significantly attenuated by KGG (1.25, 2.5, and 5 μM) in a concentration-dependent relationship. Meanwhile, KGG remarkably enhanced the protein expression of IκB. Taken together, KGG may be one of bioactive phytochemicals from H. plantaginea flowers, and be an anti-inflammatory agent via inhibiting NF-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and Akt signaling pathways.

Anti-inflammatory effects of flavonoids and phenylethanoid glycosides from Hosta plantaginea flowers in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages through inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

The flower of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Aschers has traditionally been used in China as an important Mongolian medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases with limited scientific evidence. In previous studies, 16 flavonoids and 3 phenylethanoid glycosides (1–19) were isolated from the ethanolic extract of H. plantaginea flowers. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effects of these constituents remain unclear. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effects of these 19 constituents and their underlying mechanisms were assessed in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Methods

The viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages was detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Meanwhile, nitric oxide (NO) production was measured by Griess assay, while the secretion of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 in LPS-induced macrophages was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore, the protein expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 and phosphorylated NF-κB p65 was evaluated by Western blot analysis.

Results

All constituents effectively suppressed excessive NO production at a concentration of 40 μM with no toxicity to LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Among them, five flavonoids (1, 4–6 and 15) and one phenylethanoid glycoside (17) remarkably prevented the overproduction of NO with median inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values in the range of 12.20–19.91 μM. Moreover, compounds 1, 4–6, 15 and 17 potently inhibited the secretion of TNF-α, PGE2, IL-1β and IL-6, and had a prominent inhibitory effect on the down-regulation of the phosphorylated protein level of NF-κB p65.

Conclusion

Taken together, compounds 1, 4–6, 15 and 17 may be useful in managing inflammatory diseases by blocking the NF-κB signaling pathway and suppressing the overproduction of inflammatory mediators.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03540-1.

Targeting NF-κB pathway by dietary lignans in inflammation: expanding roles of gut microbiota and metabolites

Inflammation is a major factor affecting human health. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) plays a vital role in the development of inflammation, and the promoters of most inflammatory cytokine genes have NF-κB-binding sites. Targeting NF-κB could be an exciting route for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases. As important constituents of natural plants, lignans are proved to have numerous biological functions. There are growing pieces of evidence demonstrate that lignans have the potential anti-inflammatory activities. In this work, the type, structure and source of lignans and the influence on mitigating the inflammation are systematically summarized. This review focuses on the targeting NF-κB signaling pathway in the inflammatory response by different lignans and their molecular mechanisms. Lignans also regulate gut microflora and change gut microbial metabolites, which exert novel pathway to prevent NF-κB activation. Taken together, lignans target NF-κB with various mechanisms to inhibit inflammatory cytokine expressions in the inflammatory response. It will provide a scientific theoretical basis for further research on the anti-inflammatory effects of lignans and the development of functional foods.

Hostaflavone A from Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch. blocked NF-κB/iNOS/COX-2/MAPKs/Akt signaling pathways in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hostaflavone A (HA) is a new flavonoid component isolated from the flower of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch., which is commonly used as a folk herbal to treat inflammatory diseases in China. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effect of HA remains unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work aimed to evaluate the HA with anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism in RAW 264.7 macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-inflammatory effect of HA was evaluated by measuring of cell viability, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 levels in RAW 264.7 cells. In parallel, the HA action mechanism of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65, inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), p38, and protein kinase B (Akt) were detected by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

HA has no cytotoxicity at concentrations as high as 40 μM. Besides, HA concentration-dependently clearly suppressed the overproduction of NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 cells induced by LPS. In addition, HA remarkably reduced the upregulation of phosphorylated NF-κB p65, phosphorylated IκB, phosphorylated JNK, phosphorylated Erk and phosphorylated p38, together with iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions in a concentration-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

HA blocked the LPS activated inflammation via suppressing NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and Akt pathways in RAW 264.7 cells, and might be a new anti-inflammatory agent.

Optimization for ultrasonic-microwave synergetic extraction of total iridoid glycosides and screening of analgesic and anti-inflammatory active fractions from patrinia scabra Bunge (Valerianaceae)

Background

Patrinia scabra Bunge is a well-known herbal medicine for its favorable treatment on inflammatory diseases owing to its effective ingredients, in which iridoid glycoside plays an extremely significant role. This article aimed to improve the content of total iridoid glycosides in crude extract through a series optimization of extraction procedure. Moreover, considering that both pain and inflammation are two correlated responses triggered in response to injury, irritants or pathogen, the article investigated the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of P. scabra to screen out the active fraction.

Method

P. scabra was extracted by ultrasonic-microwave synergistic extraction (UMSE) to obtain total iridoid glycosides (PSI), during which a series of conditions were investigated based on single-factor experiments. The extraction process was further optimized by a reliable statistical method of response surface methodology (RSM). The elution fractions of P. scabra extract were prepared by macroporous resin column chromatography. Through the various animal experiment including acetic acid-induced writhing test, formalin induced licking and flinching, carrageenan-induced mice paw oedema test and xylene-induced ear edema in mice, the active fractions with favorable analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect were reasonably screen out.

Results

The content of PSI could reach up to 81.42 ± 0.31 mg/g under the optimum conditions as follows: ethanol concentration of 52%, material-to-liquid ratio of 1:18 g/mL, microwave power at 610 W and extraction time of 45 min. After gradient elution by the macroporous resin, the content of PSI increased significantly. Compared with other concentrations of elution liquid, the content of PSI in 30 and 50% ethanol eluate was increased to reach 497.65 and 506.90 mg/g, respectively. Owing to the pharmacology experiment, it was reasonably revealed that 30 and 50% ethanol elution fractions of P. scabra could relieve pain centrally and peripherally, exhibiting good analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.

Conclusion

Patrinia scabra possessed rich iridoids and exhibited significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.

Study on the new anti-atherosclerosis activity of different Herba patriniae through down-regulating lysophosphatidylcholine of the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a multifactor cardiovascular disease characterized by chronic inflammation. The safety of long-term medication is the focus of clinical treatment selection and application. It is urgent to develop more high-efficiency and low side effects drugs to treat AS. Therefore, the screening of anti-AS drugs with high efficiency and low toxicity from phytomedicine has attracted more and more attention.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to explore the new pharmacological effect of Herba patriniae against AS, to find the best origin and extraction part of Herba patriniae, furthermore, to reveal its potential action mechanism.

METHODS

Apolipoprotein E gene-knockout (ApoE^-/-) mice were orally administered with different extracts of Patrinia villosa Juss (PVJ) and Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fisch (PSF). Their anti-AS effect was comprehensively evaluated by small animal ultrasound, HE staining, Oil-Red O staining, platelet aggregation rate and blood lipid level. Lipid metabolomics and network pharmacology were used to study the mechanism of drug action. Finally, the expression of related proteins were detected by western blots and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

PVJ EtOAc extract and PSF EtOAc extract could significantly reduce vascular plaque, liver inflammation, platelet aggregation and blood lipid levels in AS model. By comparison, the effect of PVJEE was better than that of PSFEE. Furthermore, the results of differential metabolites indicated that PVJEE may inhibit the apoptosis of vascular endothelial cells, proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells by reversing lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) in the glycerophospholipid metabolic pathway, so as to play an anti-AS role. This result was double verified by KEGG based metabolic pathway enrichment analysis and related protein expression study.

CONCLUSION

By changing glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway, Herba patriniae can significantly regulate lipid metabolism and inflammatory level, showing the development potential of anti-AS, which provides new candidate drugs and good prospects for the safe treatment of AS. In addition, through comparison, this study also confirmed that PVJEE was the best origin and extraction part of anti-AS.

Plantanone C attenuates LPS-stimulated inflammation by inhibiting NF-κB/iNOS/COX-2/MAPKs/Akt pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages

The flowers of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Aschers are commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases in traditional Chinese medicine with limited scientific evidence. Plantanone C (PC) is a new phytochemical isolated from H. plantaginea flowers; nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effect remains unknown. Herein, we aimed to study the anti-inflammatory effects of PC and its underlying molecular mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The cell viability of PC-treated RAW 264.7 macrophage was measured by the Cell Counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. The anti-inflammatory effect of PC was investigated by measuring the levels of inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines using the Griess reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore, the mechanism of action of PC was evaluated by Western blot analysis. The results showed that PC was not cytotoxic at concentrations as high as 40 μM. Furthermore, PC potently suppressed LPS-stimulated overproduction of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Western blot demonstrated that PC remarkably suppressed the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) p65, inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), p38, and protein kinase B (Akt), as well as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) in a concentration-dependent manner. Taken together, these findings suggest that PC exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and Akt signaling pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Protective effect of exopolysaccharide fraction from Bacillus subtilis against dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis through maintenance of intestinal barrier and suppression of inflammatory responses

We previously reported that an exopolysaccharide-enriched fraction from Bacillus subtilis J92 (B-EPS) could improve immune functions by regulating the immunological parameters of IFN-γ-primed macrophages, CD3/CD28-stimulated splenocytes, and in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice. In the present study, we investigated whether B-EPS contributes to the maintenance of intestinal barrier integrity in a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model that mimics human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). B-EPS treatment improved histological characteristics and common features including a high disease activity index (DAI), an increased spleen weight, and colon shortening in DSS-induced colitis. B-EPS also effectively restored intestinal barrier function by modulating tight junction-related proteins (claudin-1, claudin-2, and occludin) and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) marker proteins (E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and vimentin). Moreover, B-EPS downregulated immune cell infiltration and inflammatory responses including the production of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6 and IL-1β, and activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Taken together, these results suggest that B-EPS could serve as a functional food ingredient for improving intestinal barrier function and alleviating colonic inflammation in IBD.

Anti-inflammatory effect of phenylpropanoids from Dendropanax dentiger in TNF-α-induced MH7A cells via inhibition of NF-κB, Akt and JNK signaling pathways

The root of Dendropanax dentiger (Harms) Merr. has been used for centuries as an empirical treatment for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in China without scientific validation. In our recent study, nineteen phenylpropanoids (1-19) with cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory activities from the ethanol extract of D. dentiger roots, indicated to have a potential anti-RA effect. This study, evaluated the anti-RA effect of 19 phenylpropanoids on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α induced inflammation in MH7A cells and clarified their underlying mechanisms. As a result, 16 compounds remarkably suppressed nitric oxide (NO) production at a concentration of 40 μM in TNF-α-induced MH7A cells. Among them, pinoresinol (12) and dendrocoumarin A (1) were the most effective substances, which showed significant inhibitory effect on NO production, with IC₅₀ values of 6.25 ± 0.42 and 7.87 ± 0.67 μM, respectively. Furthermore, pinoresinol and dendrocoumarin A remarkably decreased the levels of interleukin (IL)-2, 6, 8, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), as well as prominently reduced the phosphorylation protein levels of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65, I-kappa-B-alpha (IkBα), protein kinase B (Akt), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by Western blot analysis. Taken together, our findings suggest that pinoresinol and dendrocoumarin A may offer new and safe anti-RA candidates by inhibiting NF-kB, Akt and JNK signaling pathways.

Volatile Oil of Platycladus Orientalis (L.) Franco Leaves Exerts Strong Anti-inflammatory Effects via Inhibiting the IκB/NF-κB Pathway

This study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of volatile oil of Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco leaves (VOPF) and the underlying molecular mechanisms by using the non-infectious inflammation rat models and infectious inflammation mouse models. Ear swelling and intraperitoneal capillary permeability in mice, and carrageenan-induced toe swelling and cotton ball-induced granuloma in rats were used to reveal anti-inflammatory effects of VOPF. Moreover, the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse model of acute lung injury was used to explore the anti-inflammatory mechanism of VOPF. The results showed that VOPF could significantly inhibit auricular swelling, intraperitoneal capillary permeability in mice, and reduce granuloma swelling and paw swelling in rats. Furthermore, it significantly alleviated the pathological damage of the lung tissue. In addition, VOPF could reduce the contents of IL-1β and TNF-α and increase the content of IL-10 in the serum. It had little effect on the expression of p65 but reduced the phosphorylation level of p65 and IκB in NF-κB pathway. In conclusion, VOPF has anti-inflammatory effects and the mechanisms involve the down-regulation of the phosphorylation levels of p65 and IκB and blockage of the NF-κB signaling pathway.