Hepatocellular carcinoma cell-derived exosomal miR-21-5p promotes the polarization of tumor-related macrophages (TAMs) through SP1/XBP1 and affects the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma

Current advances in nanoparticle-based approaches for the hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common form of liver (LC) with a high mortality rate, driven by risk factors including viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. The incident of HCC increases 2-4% of the worldwide population each year which would most certainly exceed one million per year by 2025. Despite advances in our knowledge, 25% of HCC tumors have actionable mutations which demands for innovative treatments strategies. In this perspective, we are providing a comprehensive summary of nanoparticles (NPs) based therapeutic approaches for HCC. We begin with an overview of HCC, concentrating on its pathogenesis, current conventional therapies, and their limitations. Then we delve into the therapeutic application of various nanoparticles (NPs) platforms for HCC, including polymeric micelles, dendrimers, liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, exosomes, niosomes, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes. Special attention is given to the application of NPs in photothermal and photodynamic treatment was also investigated, with a focus on their effectiveness in targeted cancer ablation. Additionally, the review discusses recent patents and clinical studies that demonstrate the promise of NPs-based therapies in improving HCC treatment outcomes. This article underscores the potential of NPs based technologies to address the challenges faced by traditional therapies and offers insights into future directions for HCC management.

Extracellular vesicles in the HCC microenvironment: Implications for therapy and biomarkers

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) stands as the sixth most prevalent cancer and the third leading cause of cancer mortality globally. Despite surgical resection being the preferred approach for early-stage HCC, most patients are diagnosed at intermediate to advanced stages, limiting treatment options to chemotherapy and immunotherapy, which often yield poor outcomes. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), minute lipid-bilayered particles released by diverse cells under various physiological and pathological conditions, are crucial for mediating communication between cells. Mounting evidence indicates that EVs sourced from different cells can profoundly influence the HCC tumor microenvironment (TME), thereby affecting the progression of HCC. Given their immunogenicity and liver-targeting properties, these EVs not only hold promise for HCC treatment but also provide avenues for advancing early diagnostic methods and assessing prognosis. This review not only describes the function of EVs within the HCC tumor microenvironment but also analyzes their therapeutic advantages and explores their significance in various therapeutic approaches for HCC, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, combination therapy, and their role as innovative drug delivery carriers. Furthermore, it highlights the potential of EVs as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of HCC.

The role of hepatocyte-derived extracellular vesicles in liver and extrahepatic diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are vesicle-like bodies with a double membrane structure that are released from the cell membrane or secreted by cells into the extracellular environment. These include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. There is growing evidence indicating that the composition of liver cell contents changes following injury. The quantity of EVs and the biologically active substances they carry vary depending on the condition of the liver cells. Hepatocytes utilize EVs to modulate the functions of different liver cells and transfer them to distant organs via the systemic circulation, thereby playing a crucial role in intercellular communication. This review provides a concise overview of the research on the effects and potential mechanisms of hepatocyte-derived EVs (Hep-EVs) on liver diseases and extrahepatic diseases under different physiological and pathological conditions. Common liver diseases discussed include non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, drug-induced liver damage, and liver cancer. Given that NAFLD is the most prevalent chronic liver disease globally, this review particularly highlights the use of hepatocyte-derived EVs in NAFLD for disease progression, diagnosis, and treatment.

Exosomal miR-106a-5p from highly metastatic colorectal cancer cells drives liver metastasis by inducing macrophage M2 polarization in the tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a dynamic system orchestrated by intricate cell-to-cell crosstalk. Specifically, macrophages within the TME play a crucial role in driving tumor progression. Exosomes are key mediators of communication between tumor cells and the TME. However, the mechanisms underlying exosome-driven crosstalk between tumor cells and macrophages during colorectal cancer (CRC) progression remain incompletely elucidated.

METHODS

Single-cell RNA sequencing were analyzed using the Seurat package. Exosomes were isolated using ultracentrifugation and characterized by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blot. miRNAs differentially expressed in exosomes were analyzed using the limma package. CD206 expression in CRC tissues, exosomes tracing, and exosomal miR-106a-5p transport were observed through immunofluorescence. Macrophage polarization was assessed via qRT-PCR, ELISA, and flow cytometry. The interactions between miR-106a-5p, hnRNPA1, and SOCS6 were evaluated using miRNA pull-down, RIP, and dual-luciferase reporter assays. Transwell assays and liver metastasis model explored the role of exosomal miR-106a-5p-induced M2 macrophages in promoting CRC liver metastasis.

RESULT

The proportion of M2 macrophages is increased in CRC with liver metastasis compared to those without. Highly metastatic CRC cells release exosomes enriched with miR-106a-5p, which promote macrophages M2 polarization by suppressing SOCS6 and activating JAK2/STAT3 pathway. These M2 macrophages reciprocally enhance CRC liver metastasis. hnRNPA1 regulate the transport of miR-106a-5p into exosomes. Clinically, elevated miR-106a-5p in plasma exosomes correlated with liver metastasis and poor prognosis.

CONCLUSION

CRC-derived exosomal miR-106a-5p plays a critical role in promoting liver metastasis and is a potential biomarker for the prevention and treatment of CRC liver metastasis.

Tumor‑associated macrophages activated in the tumor environment of hepatocellular carcinoma: Characterization and treatment (Review)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissue is rich in dendritic cells, T cells, B cells, macrophages, natural killer cells and cellular stroma. Together they form the tumor microenvironment (TME), which is also rich in numerous cytokines. Tumor‑associated macrophages (TAMs) are involved in the regulation of tumor development. TAMs in HCC receive stimuli in different directions, polarize in different directions and release different cytokines to regulate the development of HCC. TAMs are mostly divided into two cell phenotypes: M1 and M2. M1 TAMs secrete pro‑inflammatory mediators, and M2 TAMs secrete a variety of anti‑inflammatory and pro‑tumorigenic substances. The TAM polarization in HCC tumors is M2. Both direct and indirect methods for TAMs to regulate the development of HCC are discussed. TAMs indirectly support HCC development by promoting peripheral angiogenesis and regulating the immune microenvironment of the TME. In terms of the direct regulation between TAMs and HCC cells, the present review mainly focuses on the molecular mechanism. TAMs are involved in both the proliferation and apoptosis of HCC cells to regulate the quantitative changes of HCC, and stimulate the related invasive migratory ability and cell stemness of HCC cells. The present review aims to identify immunotherapeutic options based on the mechanisms of TAMs in the TME of HCC.

Advances and challenges of exosome-derived noncoding RNAs for hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis and treatment

Exosomes, also termed extracellular vesicles (EVs), are an important component of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and exert versatile effects on the molecular communications in the TME of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Exosome-mediated intercellular communication is closely associated with the tumorigenesis and development of HCC. Exosomes can be extracted through ultracentrifugation and size exclusion, followed by molecular analysis through sequencing. Increasing studies have confirmed the important roles of exosome-derived ncRNAs in HCC, including tumorigenesis, progression, immune escape, and treatment resistance. Due to the protective membrane structure of exosomes, the ncRNAs carried by exosomes can evade degradation by enzymes in body fluids and maintain good expression stability. Thus, exosome-derived ncRNAs are highly suitable as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognostic prediction of HCC, such as exosomal miR-21-5p, miR-221-3p and lncRNA-ATB. In addition, substantial studies revealed that the up-or down-regulation of exosome-derived ncRNAs had an important impact on HCC progression and response to treatment. Exosomal biomarkers, such as miR-23a, lncRNA DLX6-AS1, miR-21-5p, lncRNA TUC339, lncRNA HMMR-AS1 and hsa_circ_0004658, can reshape immune microenvironment by regulating M2-type macrophage polarization and then promote HCC development. Therefore, by controlling exosome biogenesis and modulating exosomal ncRNA levels, HCC may be inhibited or eliminated. In this current review, we summarized the recent findings on the role of exosomes in HCC progression and analyzed the relationship between exosome-derived ncRNAs and HCC diagnosis and treatment.

A comprehensive review of miR-21 in liver disease: Big impact of little things

microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of non-coding RNA with 20-24 nucleotides, are defined as the powerful regulators for gene expression. miR-21 is a multifunctional miRNA enriched in the circulatory system and multiple organs, which not only serves as a non-invasive biomarker in disease diagnosis, but also participates in many cellular activities. In various chronic liver diseases, the increase of miR-21 affects glycolipid metabolism, viral infection, inflammatory and immune cell activation, hepatic stellate cells activation and tissue fibrosis, and autophagy. Moreover, miR-21 is also a liaison in the deterioration of chronic liver disease to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and it impacts on cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, immune escape, and epithelial-mesenchymal transformation by regulating target genes expression in different signaling pathways. In current research on miRNA therapy, some natural products can exert the hepatoprotective effects depending on the inhibition of miR-21 expression. In addition, miR-21-based therapeutic also play a role in regulating intracellular miR-21 levels and enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapy drugs. Herein, we systemically summarized the recent progress of miR-21 on biosynthesis, biomarker function, molecular mechanism and miRNA therapy in chronic liver disease and HCC, and looked forward to outputting some information to enable it from bench to bedside.

Classical and Innovative Evidence for Therapeutic Strategies in Retinal Dysfunctions

The human retina is a complex anatomical structure that has no regenerative capacity. The pathogenesis of most retinopathies can be attributed to inflammation, with the activation of the inflammasome protein platform, and to the impact of oxidative stress on the regulation of apoptosis and autophagy/mitophagy in retinal cells. In recent years, new therapeutic approaches to treat retinopathies have been investigated. Experimental data suggest that the secretome of mesenchymal cells could reduce oxidative stress, autophagy, and the apoptosis of retinal cells, and in turn, the secretome of the latter could induce changes in mesenchymal cells. Other studies have evidenced that noncoding (nc)RNAs might be new targets for retinopathy treatment and novel disease biomarkers since a correlation has been found between ncRNA levels and retinopathies. A new field to explore is the interaction observed between the ocular and intestinal microbiota; indeed, recent findings have shown that the alteration of gut microbiota seems to be linked to ocular diseases, suggesting a gut-eye axis. To explore new therapeutical strategies for retinopathies, it is important to use proper models that can mimic the complexity of the retina. In this context, retinal organoids represent a good model for the study of the pathophysiology of the retina.