Incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcome of Traumatic Tricuspid Regurgitation After Percutaneous Ventricular Lead Removal

Outcomes of tricuspid regurgitation after lead extraction

INTRODUCTION

Transvenous leads have been implicated in tricuspid valve (TV) dysfunction, but limited data are available regarding the effect of extracting leads across the TV on valve regurgitation. The aim of this study is to quantify tricuspid regurgitation (TR) before and after lead extraction and identify predictors of worsening TR.

METHODS

We studied 321 patients who had echocardiographic data before and after lead extraction. TR was graded on a scale (0 = none/trivial, 1 = mild, 2 = moderate, 3 = severe). A change of >1 grade following extraction was considered significant.

RESULTS

A total of 321 patients underwent extraction of a total of 338 leads across the TV (1.05 ± 0.31 leads across the TV per patient). There was no significant difference on average TR grade pre- and postextraction (1.18 ± 0.91 vs. 1.15 ± 0.87; p = 0.79). TR severity increased after extraction in 84 patients, but was classified as significantly worse (i.e., >1 grade change in severity) in only 8 patients (2.5%). Use of laser lead extraction was associated with a higher rate of worsening TR postextraction (44.0% vs. 31.6%, p = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

In our single-center analysis, extraction of leads across the TV did not significantly affect the extent of TR in most patients. Laser lead extraction was associated with a higher rate of worsening TR after extraction.

Cardiac implantable electronic device-induced tricuspid regurgitation: Implications and management

Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) secondary to cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) has been well documented and is associated with worse cardiovascular outcomes. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed including lead-induced mechanical disruption of the tricuspid valvular or subvalvular apparatus and pacing-induced electrical dyssynchrony. Patient characteristics such as age, sex, baseline atrial fibrillation, and pre-existing TR have not been consistent predictors of CIED-induced TR. While two-dimensional echocardiography is helpful in assessing the severity of TR, three-dimensional echocardiography has significantly improved accuracy in identifying the etiology of TR and whether lead position contributes to TR. Three-dimensional echocardiography may therefore play a future role in optimizing lead positioning during implant to reduce the risk of CIED-induced TR. Optimal lead management strategies in addition to percutaneous interventions and surgery in alleviating TR are very important.

Lead management in patients undergoing percutaneous tricuspid valve replacement or repair: a 'heart team' approach

Clinically significant tricuspid regurgitation (TR) has historically been managed with either medical therapy or surgical interventions. More recently, percutaneous trans-catheter tricuspid valve (TV) replacement and tricuspid trans-catheter edge-to-edge repair have emerged as alternative treatment modalities. Patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) have an increased incidence of TR. Severe TR in this population can occur for multiple reasons but most often results from the interactions between the CIED lead and the TV apparatus. Management decisions in patients with CIED leads and clinically significant TR, who are undergoing evaluation for a percutaneous TV intervention, need careful consideration as a trans-venous lead extraction (TLE) may both worsen and improve TR severity. Furthermore, given the potential risks of 'jailing' a CIED lead at the time of a percutaneous TV intervention (lead fracture and risk of subsequent infections), consideration should be given to performing a TLE prior to a percutaneous TV intervention. The purpose of this 'state-of-the-art' review is to provide an overview of the causes of TR in patients with CIEDs, discuss the available therapeutic options for patients with TR and CIED leads, and advocate for including a lead management specialist as a member of the 'heart team' when making treatment decisions in patients TR and CIED leads.

Tricuspid Valve Damage Related to Transvenous Lead Extraction

BACKGROUND

Damage to the tricuspid valve (TVD) is now considered either a major or minor complication of the transvenous lead extraction procedure (TLE). As yet, the risk factors and long-term survival after TLE in patients with TVD have not been analyzed in detail.

METHODS

This post hoc analysis used clinical data of 2631 patients (mean age 66.86 years, 39.64% females) who underwent TLE procedures performed in three high-volume centers. The risk factors and long-term survival of patients with worsening tricuspid valve (TV) function after TLE were analyzed.

RESULTS

In most procedures (90.31%), TLE had no negative influence on TV function, but in 9.69% of patients, a worsening of tricuspid regurgitation (TR) to varying degrees was noted, including significant dysfunction in 2.54% of patients. Risk factors of TLE relating to severe TVD were: TLE of pacing leads (5.264; p = 0.029), dwell time of the oldest extracted lead (OR = 1.076; p = 0.032), strong connective scar tissue connecting a lead with tricuspid apparatus (OR = 5.720; p < 0.001), and strong connective scar tissue connecting a lead with the right ventricle wall (OR = 8.312; p < 0.001). Long-term survival (1650 ± 1201 [1-5519] days) of patients with severe TR was comparable to patients without tricuspid damage related to TLE.

CONCLUSIONS

Severe tricuspid valve damage related to TLE is relatively rare (2.5%). The main risk factors for the worsening of TV function are associated with a longer lead dwell time (more often the pacing lead), causing stronger connective tissue scars connecting the lead to the tricuspid apparatus and right ventricle. TVD is unlikely to affect long-term survival after TLE.

Pacing lead extraction in the management of tricuspid regurgitation: a case report

Background

Patients with a cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED)-induced tricuspid regurgitation (TR) have an increased mortality and morbidity. However, the impact of CIED-lead extraction and its indications are not well-defined.

Case summary

A 69-year-old woman presented with recurrent hospital admissions for right heart failure refractory to medical therapy, on the background of a single-chamber permanent pacemaker (Biotronik) implanted 6 years ago for tachycardia–bradycardia syndrome. Transoesophageal echocardiography identified severe TR which was predominantly CIED-induced from a lead impingement of the posterior tricuspid valve (TV) leaflet preventing adequate leaflet coaptation. This had progressed to cause a degree of secondary functional TR. The patient underwent pacing lead extraction followed by epicardial lead placement via minithoracotomy, with significant symptomatic and echographic improvement of TR.

Discussion

CIED-induced TR from a lead impingement of TV leaflets carries the highest risk of TR and its consequences. This case illustrates the significance of the relationship between CIED-leads and the TV, which impacts management strategy. We recommend a mechanistic approach and incorporating CIED-lead interaction with the TV apparatus as the underlying principle in developing future management guidelines for CIED-induced TR.

The role of cardiac surgeon in transvenous lead extraction: experience from 3462 procedures

INTRODUCTION

The professional society guidelines recommend that transvenous lead extraction (TLE) operating teams collaborate closely with cardiac surgeons in the management of life-threatening complications.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We assessed the role of cardiac surgeons participating in 3462 TLE procedures at a high-volume center between 2006 and 2021. The roles for cardiac surgery in TLE can be categorized into five areas: emergency surgical interventions for the management of cardiac laceration and severe bleeding (1.184%), cardiac surgery complementing partially successful TLE or vegetation removal (0.693%), delayed surgical treatment of TLE-related tricuspid valve dysfunction (0.751%), epicardial pacemaker implantation through sternotomy during emergency, complementing or delayed surgical interventions (0.607%) and delayed epicardial lead implantation (0.491%). Isolated damage to the wall of the right atrium was the most common cause of cardiac tamponade (53.66% of emergency surgeries) followed by injury to the right ventricle and vena cava (both 7.317%).

CONCLUSIONS

Emergency cardiac surgery for the management of severe hemorrhagic complications is still the most common treatment option. The remaining areas include surgery complementing partially successful TLE: repair of tricuspid valve or epicardial ventricular lead placement to achieve permanent cardiac resynchronization. The experience at a single high-volume TLE center indicates the necessity of close collaboration with the cardiac surgeons whose roles appear broader than the mere surgical standby. Mortality in patients who survived cardiac surgery during transvenous lead extraction does not differ from the survival of other patients after TLE without complications requiring surgical intervention. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Transvenous lead extraction using the TightRail mechanical rotating dilator sheath for Asian patients

The need for transvenous lead extraction (TLE) is increasing worldwide including in Asia–Pacific regions. However, supporting evidence for TightRail, a relatively new rotating mechanical dilator sheath, is still lacking in Asian patients. The efficacy and safety of TLE using TightRail performed between March 2018 and June 2021 were evaluated in 86 consecutive patients with 131 leads. The mean lead age was 11.7 ± 7.3 (range, 1.0–41.4) years. Clinical and complete procedural success using TightRail were achieved in 93.0% and 89.5% of 86 patients, respectively, with 6 min of median fluoroscopic time and 9.3% of major complication rate: death (1.2%), cardiac tamponade (3.5%), severe tricuspid regurgitation (3.5%), and stroke (1.2%). However, in 46 patients with longest lead age ≤ 10 years, clinical/complete success and major cardiac complication rates turned out better as 97.8%, 95.7%, and 2.2%, respectively. Additionally, when patients were divided into 3 groups: the first 28, second 29, and the last 29 patients, there was a clear trend toward better efficacy and safety outcomes with more experience with TightRail (P_trend < 0.05). Longest lead age > 10 years was closely associated with TLE-related major cardiac complication (P = 0.046) with 85.7% sensitivity, 57.0% specificity, 15.0% positive predictive value, and 97.8% negative predictive values. In conclusion, TLE using TightRail may be effectively and safely performed by experienced operators for Asian patients with the longest lead age ≤ 10 years. However, as TightRail is a potentially aggressive tool, special attention should be paid to patients with longer lead dwelling times (e.g., > 10 years).

A Study of Major and Minor Complications of 1500 Transvenous Lead Extraction Procedures Performed with Optimal Safety at Two High-Volume Referral Centers

Background: Transvenous lead extraction (TLE) is the preferred management strategy for complications related to cardiac implantable electronic devices. TLE sometimes can cause serious complications. Methods: Outcomes of TLE procedures using non-powered mechanical sheaths were analyzed in 1500 patients (mean age 68.11 years; 39.86% females) admitted to two high-volume centers. Results: Complete procedural success was achieved in 96.13% of patients; clinical success in 98.93%, no periprocedural death occurred. Mean lead dwell time in the study population was 112.1 months. Minor complications developed in 115 (7.65%), major complications in 33 (2.20%) patients. The most frequent minor complications were tricuspid valve damage (TVD) (3.20%) and pericardial effusion that did not necessitate immediate intervention (1.33%). The most common major complication was cardiac laceration/vascular tear (1.40%) followed by an increase in TVD by two or three grades to grade 4 (0.80%). Conclusions: Despite the long implant duration (112.1 months) satisfying results without procedure-related death can be obtained using mechanical tools. Lead remnants or severe tricuspid regurgitation was the principal cause of lack of clinical and procedural success. Worsening TR(Tricuspid regurgitation) (due to its long-term consequences), but not cardiac/vascular wall damage; is still the biggest TLE-related problem; when non-powered mechanical sheaths are used as first-line tools.

Analysis of Risk Factors for Major Complications of 1500 Transvenous Lead Extraction Procedures with Especial Attention to Tricuspid Valve Damage

Background: Transvenous lead extraction (TLE) is a relatively safe procedure, but it may cause severe complications such as cardiac/vascular wall tear (CVWT) and tricuspid valve damage (TVD). Methods: The risk factors for CVWT and TVD were examined based on an analysis of data of 1500 extraction procedures performed in two high-volume centers. Results: The total number of major complications was 33 (2.2%) and included 22 (1.5%) CVWT and 12 (0.8%) TVD (with one case of combined complication). Patients with hemorrhagic complications were younger, more often women, less often presenting low left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and those who received their first cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) earlier than the control group. A typical patient with CVWT was a pacemaker carrier, having more leads (including abandoned leads and excessive loops) with long implant duration and a history of multiple CIED-related procedures. The risk factors for TVD were similar to those for CVWT, but the patients were older and received their CIED about nine years earlier. Any form of tissue scar and technical problems were much more common in the two groups of patients with major complications. Conclusions: The risk factors for CVWT and TVD are similar, and the most important ones are related to long lead dwell time and its consequences for the heart (various forms of fibrotic scarring). The occurrence of procedural complications does not affect long-term survival in patients undergoing lead extraction.

The prognostic value of transesophageal echocardiography after transvenous lead extraction: landscape after battle

Background

In patients undergoing transvenous lead extraction (TLE) transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) provide valuable information after procedure.

Methods

We analyzed data from 936 TEE performed in patients undergoing TLE between 2015 and 2019 (mean follow-up 566.23±224.47 days) and assessed the role of echocardiographic phenomena after procedure.

Results

Increment in tricuspid regurgitation (TR) was observed in 9% of patients after TLE. Factors increasing the risk of TR were: binding sites between lead and right ventricle (RV) (OR: 5.429), tricuspid valve (TV) (OR: 3.42), superior vena cava (SVC) (OR: 3.30) and lead-to-lead adhesions (OR: 2.88). Predisposing factors of residual structures after TLE were: asymptomatic masses on the leads (AMEL) (OR: 1.68), binding sites between SVC and cardiac structures (OR: 1.72), and multiple leads (OR: 1.30). Probability of vegetation remnants increased in the presence of abandoned leads (OR: 7.91). The risk factors of tamponade were: dwell time of the oldest lead (OR: 1.17), lead-to-lead adhesion (OR: 22.47), binding sites between lead and TV (OR: 6.08), RA (OR: 11.50), SVC (OR: 4.47), higher LVEF (OR: 2.35; P=0.006), female gender (OR: 5.43), multiple leads (OR: 2.11), looped leads (OR: 4.90) and AMEL (OR: 6.42). The risk of lead fracture was increased by: lead-to-lead adhesion (OR: 5.69), fibrosis binding the lead to RV (OR: 5.16), RA (OR: 2.39) and dwell time of the oldest lead (OR: 1.068). The mortality rate was 11.97% during follow-up. The risk of death was increased by: severe TR and vegetation remnants.

Conclusions

The most important phenomena evaluated after TLE are: tricuspid valve function, residual fibrosis and vegetation remnants, progression of pericardial effusion and retained lead fragments. Postoperative TEE provides information about the results of TLE and helps establish further management.

Laser Lead Extraction Complicated by Avulsed Tricuspid Subvalvular Apparatus with Severe Tricuspid Regurgitation

The use of laser lead extraction (LLE) to remove pacemaker or implantable cardioverter-defibrillator leads has become increasingly prevalent. This advanced technique has been shown to be highly effective and safe. We report a rare case of severe traumatic tricuspid regurgitation after LLE that led to death.

Transvenous lead extraction with laser reduces need for femoral approach during the procedure

Introduction

Cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) trans venous lead extraction (TLE) is technically challenging. Whether the use of a laser sheath reduces complications and improves outcomes is still in debate. We therefore aimed at comparing our experience with and without laser in a large referral center.

Methods

Information of all patients undergoing TLE was collected prospectively. We retrospectively compared procedural outcomes prior to the introduction of the laser sheath lead extraction technique to use of laser sheath.

Results

During the years 2007–2017, there were 850 attempted lead removals in 407 pts. Of them, 339 (83%) were extracted due to infection, device upgrade/lead malfunction in 42 (10%) cases, and other (7%). Complete removal (radiological success) of all leads was achieved in (88%). Partial removal was achieved in another 6% of the patients. Comparison of cases prior to and after laser technique introduction, showed that with laser, a significantly smaller proportion of cases required conversion to femoral approach [31/275 (6%) laser vs. 40/132 (15%) non-laser; p<0.001]. However, success rates of removal [259/275 (94%) vs. 124/132 (94%) respectively; p = 0.83] and total complication rates [35 (13%) vs. 19 (14%) respectively; p = 0.86] did not differ prior to and after laser use. In multivariate analysis, laser-assisted extraction was an independent predictor for no need for femoral extraction (OR = 0.39; 95% CI 0.23–0.69; p = 0.01).

Conclusion

Introduction of laser lead removal resulted in decreased need to convert to femoral approach, albeit without improving success rates or preventing major complications.

Multiplane/3D transesophageal echocardiography monitoring to improve the safety and outcome of complex transvenous lead extractions

Both transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) and intracardiac echocardiography have been used to assist transvenous lead extractions. The clinical utility of continuous echocardiographic monitoring during the procedure is still debated, with different reports supporting opposite findings. In cases where the procedure is expected to be difficult, we propose adding a continuous TEE monitoring using a static 3D/multiplane probe in mid-esophageal position, with digital remote manipulation of the field of view. This approach may improve the chances of a successful extraction, increase safety, or even guide the entire intervention. We present here a short case series where continuous monitoring by TEE played an important role.

Comparison of epicardial vs. endocardial reimplantation in pacemaker-dependent patients with device infection

Aims

Reimplantation of cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) after extraction due to device infection is a major issue in pacemaker-dependent patients. We compared in-hospital and long-term outcomes with two techniques: epicardial reimplantation (EPI) before CIED extraction and temporary pacing (TP) with a view to delayed endocardial reimplantation.

Methods and results

Two cohorts of consecutive pacemaker-dependent patients who underwent transvenous lead extraction at our tertiary centre were included in this retrospective cohort study. According to successive policies, either the EPI or the TP approach was used. In-hospital complications occurred at similar rates in the EPI (n = 59) and TP (n = 52) cohorts (37.3% vs. 32.7%, respectively; P = 0.61). Thirteen (25.0%) patients in the TP cohort eventually were reimplanted epicardially, mainly because of infection of the temporary lead. Finally, 65 patients were discharged with an epicardial device and 37 with an endocardial device. Median follow-up was 41.7 (interquartile range 34.1-51.5) months. No difference was observed in long-term mortality according to the reimplantation strategy, but use of TP was associated with a reduced risk of late endocarditis and device reintervention (hazard ratio (HR) 0.25, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.09-0.069, P = 0.01), whereas epicardial device reimplantation was associated with an increased risk (HR 3.62, 95% CI 1.07-12.21, P = 0.04).

Conclusion

We observed similar in-hospital outcomes in our EPI and TP cohorts. Twenty-five percent of the patients initially paced by a TP strategy finally needed an epicardial device, mainly because of infection of their TP lead. Use of TP resulted in lower rates of late endocarditis and device reintervention.

Tricuspid Valve Dysfunction Caused by Right Ventricular Leads

Tricuspid regurgitation is increasingly recognized as a clinically significant valvular condition. The role of multiple pacemaker and implantable cardiac defibrillator leads in distortion of the valve structure and the risk of trauma to the valve and subvalvular apparatus with lead extraction contribute to the development of tricuspid regurgitation (TR). There is a clinical imperative to better understand the optimal way to diagnose lead-related TR, risk factors for the development of TR, and optimal strategies to mitigate this problem.

Overcoming the current issues surrounding device leads: reducing the complications during extraction

INTRODUCTION

The implantation rate of cardiac implantable electronic devices has consistently increased in the last 20 years, as have the related complication rates. The most relevant issue is the removal of pacing and implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) leads, which a few months after implantation tend to develop intravascular fibrosis, often making extraction a challenging and risky procedure. Areas covered: The transvenous lead extraction (TLE) scenario is constantly evolving. TLE is a key procedure in lead management strategies. Many efforts have been made to develop new TLE approaches and techniques allowing a safe and effective procedure for patients. The increasing rate of cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) implantations and of CIED related complications highlight the importance of TLE. Lead related- and patient-related factors may change the future of extractions. We review the current status of TLE, focusing on the strategies available to perform the optimal procedure in the right patient and reducing procedure related complications. Expert commentary: Understanding the importance of an accurate TLE risk stratification is mandatory to optimize the procedural risk-to-benefits ratio. The use of adequate tools, techniques and approaches, and appropriate training are cornerstones for the achievement of safer procedures.

Lead-Sparing Tricuspid Valve Repair Damaged by Pacemaker Lead

Permanent pacemaker lead may damage the tricuspid valve in various ways, causing severe tricuspid valve regurgitation. The perforation of posterior papillary muscle is an uncommon complication caused by the lead. We describe a lead-sparing tricuspid valve repair in which the lead extraction was not an option. The papillary muscle containing the lead was fully mobilized to release the adherent leaflets. The repair was completed by commissuroplasty as well as ring annuloplasty, leaving the lead inside the implanted ring.

Treatment of Infected Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices

With their rising benefits, cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) such as pacemakers and left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) have witnessed a sharp rise in use over the past 50 years. As indications for use broaden, so too does their widespread employment with its attendant rise of CIED infections. Such large numbers of infections have inspired various algorithms mandating treatment. Early diagnosis of inciting organisms is crucial to tailoring appropriate antibiotic and or antifungal treatment. In addition, surgical debridement and explant of the device have been a longstanding modality of care. More novel therapies focus on salvage of the device by way of serial washouts and instilling drug-eluting antibiotic impregnated beads into the wound. The wound is then serially debrided until clean and closed. This technique is better suited to patients whose device cannot be removed, patients who are poor candidates for cardiac surgery, or patients who have failed conventional prior treatments.

Different types of tricuspid flail: Case reports and review of the literature

Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is a common Doppler echocardiographic finding resulting from either intrinsic valve abnormalities or functional malcoaptation of structurally normal valves. TR caused by flail leaflets is most often post-traumatic, is caused by endocarditis or is a consequence of a myxomatously degenerated valve. The clinical presentation is severe and is characterized by excess mortality and high morbidity. Flail leaflets are reliably diagnosed using 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional echocardiography.

Unusual cause of hypoxemia after automatic implantable cardioverter-defibrillatorleads extraction

The indication of pacemaker/AICD removal are numerous. Serious complication can occur during their removal, severe tricuspid regurgitation is one of the complication. The occurrence of PFO is not uncommon among adult population. Shunting across PFO in most circumstance is negligible, but in some necessitates closure due to hypoxemia. We report a case of 62 year old man, while undergoing AICD removal, had an emergency sternotomy for cardiac tamponade. Postoperatively, he experienced profound hypoxemia refractory to oxygen therapy. Transthoracic Echocardiogram was performed to rule out intracardiac shunts at an early stage, but it was difficult to obtain an good imaging windows poststernotomy. A small pulmonary emboli was noted on CTPA, but was not sufficient to account for the level of hypoxemia and did not resolve with anticoagulation. Transesophageal echocardiogram showed flail septal tricuspid valve with severe TR and bidirectional shunt through large PFO. Patient was posted for surgery, tricuspid valve was replaced and PFO surgically closed. Subsequently, patient recovered well ad was discharged to home. Cause of hypoxemia might be due to respiratory or cardiac dysfunction. But for hypoxemia refractory to oxygen therapy, transoesophageal echocardiogram should be always considered and performed early as an diagnostic tool in post cardiac surgical patients.

Tricuspid regurgitation in patients with pacemakers and implantable cardiac defibrillators: a comprehensive review

Implantable cardiac devices, including defibrillators and pacemakers, may be the cause of tricuspid regurgitation (TR) or may worsen existing TR. This review of the literature suggests that TR usually occurs over time after lead implantation. Diagnosis by clinical exam and 2-dimensional echocardiography may be augmented by 3-dimensional echocardiography and/or computed tomography. The mechanism may be mechanical perforation or laceration of leaflets, scarring and restriction of leaflets, or asynchronized activation of the right ventricle. Pacemaker-related TR might cause severe right-sided heart failure, but data regarding associated mortality are lacking. This comprehensive review summarizes the data regarding incidence, mechanism, and treatment of lead-related TR.

Diagnostic yield of FDG positron-emission tomography/computed tomography in patients with CEID infection: a pilot study

AIMS

Whole body imaging with (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography/computed tomography (FDG PET/CT) has proven useful in various infectious diseases. The purpose of this pilot study was to assess the diagnostic yield of FDG PET/CT in patients with cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED) infection.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 21 patients with CIED infection were prospectively included. Diagnosis of CIED infection was made in accordance with current criteria. It was classified in three categories, i.e. superficial skin infection, pocket site infection, or cardiac device-related infective endocarditis (CDRIE). All patients underwent FDG PET/CT. Scans were interpreted blindly, i.e. without prior knowledge of diagnosis, by experienced nuclear medicine physicians. The accuracy of FDG PET/CT was assessed for each diagnostic category. Findings demonstrated superficial skin infection in 1 patient, pocket site infection in 15, and CDRIE in 13 (definite: 7; possible: 6). In patients with pocket site infection, the sensitivity and specificity of FDG PET/CT were 86.7% [59.5-98.3, 95% confidence interval (CI)] and 100% [42.1-100, 95% CI]. The only patient with superficial skin infection was accurately identified by FDG PET/CT. The sensitivity and specificity of FDG PET/CT in patients with CDRIE were 30.8% [9.1-61.4, 95% CI] and 62.5% [24.5-91.5, 95% CI]. Most false-negative results occurred in patients who had undergone previous antimicrobial treatment.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that FDG PET/CT is highly accurate for the diagnosis of skin and pocket CIED infection but low for infective endocarditis. This suggests that the reliability of FDG PET/CT findings in management decision making varies according to the type of CIED infection.