Intrinsic unresponsiveness of Mertk-/- B cells to chronic graft-versus-host disease is associated with unmodulated CD1d expression

Cellular and molecular mechanisms in graft-versus-host disease

Graft-versus-host disease is a complication in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Graft-versus-host disease includes acute graft-versus-host disease and chronic graft-versus-host disease. Host APCs (e.g., dendritic cells and macrophages), effector T cells (e.g., Th1, Th17, and abnormal Th17:regulatory T cell ratio), B cells, and NK cells are implicated in graft-versus-host disease physiopathology. Proinflammation cytokines (e.g., IL-17, IL-1β, and TNF-α) are increased in graft-versus-host disease . Costimulatory molecules play an important role in inducing graft-versus-host disease . Pattern-recognition receptors, such as TLRs and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors, are critically involved in the pathogenesis of graft-versus-host disease . Complement system C3 mediates Th1/Th17 polarization in human T cell activation and skin graft-versus-host disease. Accumulation of CD26 T cells in graft-versus-host disease target organs was found. As a therapeutic target, soluble CD83 molecules or antibodies have been demonstrated to have therapeutic effects against graft-versus-host disease, and signaling molecules promote the inflammatory and immune process of graft-versus-host disease . These immune cells and molecules could be the predictors of graft-versus-host disease development and the drug targets of the treatments for graft-versus-host disease. This article focuses on major advances on cellular and molecular mechanisms in graft-versus-host disease.

The Mertk receptor tyrosine kinase promotes T-B interaction stimulated by IgD B-cell receptor cross-linking

The Mertk receptor tyrosine kinase facilitates macrophage and DC apoptotic-cell clearance and regulates immune tolerance. Mertk may also contribute to B-cell activation, because Mertk-KO mice fail to develop autoantibodies when allo-activated by T cells. We investigated this possibility with a well-characterized model in which injection of mice with goat anti-IgD antibody causes membrane IgD cross-linking that induces T-independent B cell activation and antigen presentation to T cells. Goat anti-mouse IgD antibody-injected C57BL/6 Mertk-KO mice had normal initial B cell activation and proliferation, but significantly lower T cell activation and proliferation, as well as lower IgE and IgG anti-goat IgG responses, as compared to C57BL/6 WT controls. B cell antigen processing, analyzed by evaluating B cell fluorescence following injection of monoclonal anti-IgD antibody labeled with biotin or FITC, was comparable between Mertk-KO mice and WT mice. IgD Ab primed B cells from Mertk-KO mice exhibited significantly lower ability in activating memory T cells isolated from WT mice injected with the same antigen 10 days before. These observations suggest that Mertk expression is required for optimal B-cell antigen presentation, which is, in turn, required in this model for optimal T cell activation and subsequent T cell-dependent B cell differentiation.

Induced murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus

Induced mouse models of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have been developed to complement the spontaneous models. This chapter describes the methods used in the pristane-induced model and the chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) model, both of which have been extensively used. We will also outline the specific mechanisms of systemic autoimmunity that can be best characterized using each of these models.

Prolonged apoptotic cell accumulation in germinal centers of Mer-deficient mice causes elevated B cell and CD4+ Th cell responses leading to autoantibody production

Mer receptor tyrosine kinase is a member of the Tyro-3/Axl/Mer (TAM) subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases, and its expression on phagocytes facilitates their clearance of apoptotic cells (ACs). Mer expression in germinal centers (GCs) occurs predominantly on tingible body macrophages. B and T cells do not express Mer. In this study, we show that Mer deficiency ((Mer(-/-)) resulted in the long-term accumulation of ACs primarily in GCs and not in the T cell zone, marginal zone, or red pulp areas of the spleen. AC accumulation in GCs led to augmented Ab-forming cell, GC, and IgG2 Ab responses in Mer(-/-) mice, which were sustained for at least 80 d. Enhanced responses in Mer(-/-) mice were due to increased activation and proliferation of B cells and CD4(+) Th cells, including follicular helper T cells, which resulted in high titers of anti-nuclear Abs in Mer(-/-) mice compared with wild-type controls. Secondary IgG-producing Ab-forming cell, total IgG, and IgG2 Ab responses were also increased in Mer(-/-) mice. Finally, compared with wild-type controls, Mer(-/-) mice had increased percentage of IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) Th cells and elevated levels of Th1 (i.e., IL-2 and IFN-γ) and proinflammatory (i.e., TNF and IL-6) cytokines, consistent with elevated levels of Th1-biased IgG2 Abs in Mer(-/-) mice. Together, our results demonstrate that Mer deficiency induces prolonged accumulation of ACs in GCs, resulting in dysregulation of GC B cell and CD4(+) Th cell responses and Th1 cytokine production, leading to alteration of B cell tolerance and the development of autoantibodies.