DNA polymerase θ promotes CAG•CTG repeat expansions in Huntington's disease via insertion sequences of its catalytic domain

Pathophysiological role of high mobility group box-1 signaling in neurodegenerative diseases

Nucleocytoplasmic translocation of HMGB1 (high mobility group box-1) plays a significant role in disease progression. Several methods contribute to the translocation of HMGB1 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, including inflammasome activation, TNF-α signaling, CRM1-mediated transport, reactive oxygen species (ROS), JAK/STAT pathway, RIP3-mediated p53 involvement, XPO-1-mediated transport, and calcium-dependent mechanisms. Due to its diverse functions at various subcellular locations, HMGB1 has been identified as a crucial factor in several Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders, including Huntington's disease (HD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD). HMGB1 displays a wide array of roles in the extracellular environment as it interacts with several receptors, including CXCR4, TLR2, TLR4, TLR8, and RAGE, by engaging in these connections, HMGB1 can effectively regulate subsequent signaling pathways, hence exerting an impact on the progression of brain disorders through neuroinflammation. Therefore, focusing on treating neuroinflammation could offer a common therapeutic strategy for several disorders. The objective of the current literature is to demonstrate the pathological role of HMGB1 in various neurological disorders. This review also offers insights into numerous therapeutic targets that promise to advance multiple treatments intended to alleviate brain illnesses.

Repeat expansion in a Fragile X model is independent of double strand break repair mediated by Pol θ, Rad52, Rad54l or Rad54b

Microsatellite instability is responsible for the human Repeat Expansion Disorders. The mutation responsible differs from classical cancer-associated microsatellite instability (MSI) in that it requires the mismatch repair proteins that normally protect against MSI. LIG4, an enzyme essential for non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), the major pathway for double-strand break repair (DSBR) in mammalian cells, protects against expansion in mouse models. Thus, NHEJ may compete with the expansion pathway for access to a common intermediate. This raises the possibility that expansion involves an NHEJ-independent form of DSBR. Pol θ, a polymerase involved in the theta-mediated end joining (TMEJ) DSBR pathway, has been proposed to play a role in repeat expansion. Here we examine the effect of the loss of Pol θ on expansion in FXD mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs), along with the effects of mutations in Rad52 , Rad54l and Rad54b, genes important for multiple DSBR pathways. None of these mutations significantly affected repeat expansion. These observations put major constraints on what pathways are likely to drive expansion. Together with our previous demonstration of the protective effect of nucleases like EXO1 and FAN1, and the importance of Pol β, they suggest a plausible model for late steps in the expansion process.

Msh3 and Pms1 Set Neuronal CAG-repeat Migration Rate to Drive Selective Striatal and Cortical Pathogenesis in HD Mice

Modifiers of Huntington's disease (HD) include mismatch repair (MMR) genes; however, their underlying disease-altering mechanisms remain unresolved. Knockout (KO) alleles for 9 HD GWAS modifiers/MMR genes were crossed to the Q140 Huntingtin (mHtt) knock-in mice to probe such mechanisms. Four KO mice strongly ( Msh3 and Pms1 ) or moderately ( Msh2 and Mlh1 ) rescue a triad of adult-onset, striatal medium-spiny-neuron (MSN)-selective phenotypes: somatic Htt DNA CAG-repeat expansion, transcriptionopathy, and mHtt protein aggregation. Comparatively, Q140 cortex also exhibits an analogous, but later-onset, pathogenic triad that is Msh3 -dependent. Remarkably, Q140/homozygous Msh3-KO lacks visible mHtt aggregates in the brain, even at advanced ages (20-months). Moreover, Msh3 -deficiency prevents striatal synaptic marker loss, astrogliosis, and locomotor impairment in HD mice. Purified Q140 MSN nuclei exhibit highly linear age-dependent mHtt DNA repeat expansion (i.e. repeat migration), with modal-CAG increasing at +8.8 repeats/month (R 2 =0.98). This linear rate is reduced to 2.3 and 0.3 repeats/month in Q140 with Msh3 heterozygous and homozygous alleles, respectively. Our study defines somatic Htt CAG-repeat thresholds below which there are no detectable mHtt nuclear or neuropil aggregates. Mild transcriptionopathy can still occur in Q140 mice with stabilized Htt 140-CAG repeats, but the majority of transcriptomic changes are due to somatic repeat expansion. Our analysis reveals 479 genes with expression levels highly correlated with modal-CAG length in MSNs. Thus, our study mechanistically connects HD GWAS genes to selective neuronal vulnerability in HD, in which Msh3 and Pms1 set the linear rate of neuronal mHtt CAG-repeat migration to drive repeat-length dependent pathogenesis; and provides a preclinical platform for targeting these genes for HD suppression across brain regions.

One Sentence Summary

Msh3 and Pms1 are genetic drivers of sequential striatal and cortical pathogenesis in Q140 mice by mediating selective CAG-repeat migration in HD vulnerable neurons.

Templated insertions-DNA repair gets acrobatic

Deletions associated with the repair of DNA double-strand breaks is a source of genetic alternation and a recognized source of disease-causing mutagenesis. Theta-mediated end joining is a DNA repair mechanism, which guarantees deletions by its employment of microhomology (MH) alignment to facilitate end joining. A lesser-characterized templated insertion ability of this pathway, on the other hand, is associated with both deletion and insertion. This mechanism is characterized by at least one round of polymerase θ-mediated synthesis, which does not result in successful repair, followed by a subsequent round of polymerase engagement and synthesis that does lead to repair. Here we focus on the mechanisms by which polymerase θ introduces these insertions-direct, inverse, and a new class which we have termed strand switching. We observe this new class of templated insertions at multiple loci and across multiple species, often at a comparable frequency to those previously characterized. Templated insertion mutations are often enriched in cancer genomes and repeat expansion disorders. This repair mechanism thus contributes to disease-associated mutagenesis, and may plausibly even promote disease. Characterization of the types of polymerase θ-dependent insertions can provide new insight into these diseases and clinical promise for treatment.

MSH2-MSH3 promotes DNA end resection during homologous recombination and blocks polymerase theta-mediated end-joining through interaction with SMARCAD1 and EXO1

DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair via homologous recombination is initiated by end resection. The extent of DNA end resection determines the choice of the DSB repair pathway. Nucleases for end resection have been extensively studied. However, it is still unclear how the potential DNA structures generated by the initial short resection by MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 are recognized and recruit proteins, such as EXO1, to DSB sites to facilitate long-range resection. We found that the MSH2-MSH3 mismatch repair complex is recruited to DSB sites through interaction with the chromatin remodeling protein SMARCAD1. MSH2-MSH3 facilitates the recruitment of EXO1 for long-range resection and enhances its enzymatic activity. MSH2-MSH3 also inhibits access of POLθ, which promotes polymerase theta-mediated end-joining (TMEJ). Collectively, we present a direct role of MSH2-MSH3 in the initial stages of DSB repair by promoting end resection and influencing the DSB repair pathway by favoring homologous recombination over TMEJ.

Dynamic alternative DNA structures in biology and disease

Repetitive elements in the human genome, once considered 'junk DNA', are now known to adopt more than a dozen alternative (that is, non-B) DNA structures, such as self-annealed hairpins, left-handed Z-DNA, three-stranded triplexes (H-DNA) or four-stranded guanine quadruplex structures (G4 DNA). These dynamic conformations can act as functional genomic elements involved in DNA replication and transcription, chromatin organization and genome stability. In addition, recent studies have revealed a role for these alternative structures in triggering error-generating DNA repair processes, thereby actively enabling genome plasticity. As a driving force for genetic variation, non-B DNA structures thus contribute to both disease aetiology and evolution.

Multifaceted Nature of DNA Polymerase θ

DNA polymerase θ belongs to the A family of DNA polymerases and plays a key role in DNA repair and damage tolerance, including double-strand break repair and DNA translesion synthesis. Pol θ is often overexpressed in cancer cells and promotes their resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. In this review, we discuss unique biochemical properties and structural features of Pol θ, its multiple roles in protection of genome stability and the potential of Pol θ as a target for cancer treatment.

POLQ suppresses genome instability and alterations in DNA repeat tract lengths

DNA polymerase theta (POLQ) is a principal component of the alternative non-homologous end-joining (ANHEJ) DNA repair pathway that ligates DNA double-strand breaks. Utilizing independent models of POLQ insufficiency during telomere-driven crisis, we found that POLQ - /- cells are resistant to crisis-induced growth deceleration despite sustaining inter-chromosomal telomere fusion frequencies equivalent to wild-type (WT) cells. We recorded longer telomeres in POLQ - / - than WT cells pre- and post-crisis, notwithstanding elevated total telomere erosion and fusion rates. POLQ - /- cells emerging from crisis exhibited reduced incidence of clonal gross chromosomal abnormalities in accordance with increased genetic heterogeneity. High-throughput sequencing of telomere fusion amplicons from POLQ-deficient cells revealed significantly raised frequencies of inter-chromosomal fusions with correspondingly depreciated intra-chromosomal recombinations. Long-range interactions culminating in telomere fusions with centromere alpha-satellite repeats, as well as expansions in HSAT2 and HSAT3 satellite and contractions in ribosomal DNA repeats, were detected in POLQ - / - cells. In conjunction with the expanded telomere lengths of POLQ - /- cells, these results indicate a hitherto unrealized capacity of POLQ for regulation of repeat arrays within the genome. Our findings uncover novel considerations for the efficacy of POLQ inhibitors in clinical cancer interventions, where potential genome destabilizing consequences could drive clonal evolution and resistant disease.

DNA-PKcs-dependent phosphorylation of RECQL4 promotes NHEJ by stabilizing the NHEJ machinery at DNA double-strand breaks

Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is the major pathway that mediates the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) generated by ionizing radiation (IR). Previously, the DNA helicase RECQL4 was implicated in promoting NHEJ, but its role in the pathway remains unresolved. In this study, we report that RECQL4 stabilizes the NHEJ machinery at DSBs to promote repair. Specifically, we find that RECQL4 interacts with the NHEJ core factor DNA-PK_cs and the interaction is increased following IR. RECQL4 promotes DNA end bridging mediated by DNA-PK_cs and Ku70/80 in vitro and the accumulation/retention of NHEJ factors at DSBs in vivo. Moreover, interaction between DNA-PK_cs and the other core NHEJ proteins following IR treatment is attenuated in the absence of RECQL4. These data indicate that RECQL4 promotes the stabilization of the NHEJ factors at DSBs to support formation of the NHEJ long-range synaptic complex. In addition, we observed that the kinase activity of DNA-PK_cs is required for accumulation of RECQL4 to DSBs and that DNA-PK_cs phosphorylates RECQL4 at six serine/threonine residues. Blocking phosphorylation at these sites reduced the recruitment of RECQL4 to DSBs, attenuated the interaction between RECQL4 and NHEJ factors, destabilized interactions between the NHEJ machinery, and resulted in decreased NHEJ. Collectively, these data illustrate reciprocal regulation between RECQL4 and DNA-PK_cs in NHEJ.