Acetic acid ketonization on tetragonal zirconia: Role of surface reduction

The Underlying Catalytic Role of Oxygen Vacancies in Fatty Acid Methyl Esters Ketonization over TiOx Catalysts

Recently, interest in converting bio-derived fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) into added-value products has significantly increased. The selectivity of ketonization reaction in the conversion of the FAMEs has significantly hampered the efficiency of this process. Herein, this work reports the preparation of catalysts with different levels of oxygen vacancies while the crystal phase remained unchanged. The catalyst with the highest level of oxygen vacancy exhibited the maximum selectivity. The density functional theory (DFT) simulation showed an increase in interatomic distances leading to the formation of frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) upon the creation of oxygen vacancies. The surface measurements, type and density of acid sites of the catalysts, showed that the Lewis acid sites enhanced the selectivity for ketone production; while Bronsted acid sites increased the formation of by-products. Moreover, the ketone formation rate was directly proportional to acid density. The findings of this research provide a different approach for catalyst design, based on defects engineering and their effect on the surface activity, which could be used for enhancing the catalytic performance of novel metal oxides.

Elucidation of the Roles of Water on the Reactivity of Surface Intermediates in Carboxylic Acid Ketonization on TiO2

The effects of water on the carboxylic acid ketonization reaction over solid Lewis-acid catalysts were examined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS), temperature-programmed desorption (TPD), and kinetic measurements. Acetic acid and propanoic acid were used as model compounds, and P25 TiO₂ was used as a model catalyst to represent the anatase TiO₂ since the rutile phase only contributes to <2.5% of the overall ketonization activity of P25 TiO₂. The kinetic measurement showed that introducing H₂O vapor in gaseous feed decreases the ketonization reaction rate by increasing the intrinsic activation barrier of gas-phase acetic acid on anatase TiO₂. Quantitative TPD of acetic acid indicated that H₂O does not compete with acetic acid for Lewis sites. Instead, as indicated by combined approaches of NMR and DRIFTS, H₂O associates with the adsorbed acetate or acetic acid intermediates on the catalyst surface and alters their reactivities for the ketonization reaction. There are multiple species present on the anatase TiO₂ surface upon carboxylic acid adsorption, including molecular carboxylic acid, monodentate carboxylate, and chelating/bridging bidentate carboxylates. The presence of H₂O vapor increases the coverage of the less reactive bridging bidentate carboxylate associated with adsorbed H₂O, leading to lower ketonization activity on hydrated anatase TiO₂. Surface hydroxyl groups, which are consumed by interaction with carboxylic acid upon the formation of surface acetate species, do not impact the ketonization reaction.

Role of Sulfation of Zirconia Catalysts in Vapor Phase Ketonization of Acetic Acid

The effect of the sulfation of zirconia catalysts on their structure, acidity/basicity, and catalytic activity/selectivity toward the ketonization of organic acids is investigated by a combined experimental and computational method. Here, we show that, upon sulfation, zirconia catalysts exhibit a significant increase in their Brønsted and Lewis acid strength, whereas their Lewis basicity is significantly reduced. Such changes in the interplay between acid-base sites result in an improvement of the selectivity toward the ketonization process, although the measured conversion rates show a significant drop. We report a detailed DFT investigation of the putative surface species on sulfated zirconia, including the possible formation of dimeric pyrosulfate (S₂O₇ ^2-) species. Our results show that the formation of such a dimeric system is an endothermic process, with energy barriers ranging between 60.0 and 70.0 kcal mol^-1, and which is likely to occur only at high SO₄ ^2- coverages (4 S/nm²), high temperatures, and dehydrating conditions. Conversely, the formation of monomeric species is expected at lower SO₄ ^2- coverages, mild temperatures, and in the presence of water, which are the usual conditions experienced during the chemical upgrading of biofuels.

Crystal Phase Effects on the Gas-Phase Ketonization of Small Carboxylic Acids over TiO2 Catalysts

The choice of TiO2 crystal phase (i. e., anatase, rutile, or brookite) greatly influences catalyst performance in the gas-phase ketonization of small volatile fatty acids, such as acetic acid and propionic acid. Rutile TiO2 was found to perform best, combining superior activity, as exemplified by an exceptional reaction rate of 141.8 mmol h-1  gcat -1 (at 425 °C and 24 h-1 ) with excellent ketone selectivity when propionic acid was used. Brookite, to the best of our knowledge never reported before as a viable ketonization catalyst, was found to outperform the well-studied anatase phase, but not rutile. Operando Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy measurements combined with on-line mass spectrometry showed that bidentate carboxylates were the most abundant surface species on the rutile and brookite surfaces, while on anatase both monodentate and bidentate carboxylates co-existed. The bidendate carboxylates were thought to be precursors to the active ketonization species, likely monodentate intermediates more prone to C-C coupling. Ketonization activity did not directly correlate with acidity; the observed, strong crystal phase effect did suggest that ketonization activity is influenced strongly by geometrical factors that determine the ease of formation of the relevant surface intermediates.

Transition Metal B-Site Substitutions in LaAlO3 Perovskites Reorient Bio-Ethanol Conversion Reactions

LaAlO3 perovskites, as such and with 25% molar Al substitution by Cu, Co, or Ga, have been prepared by sol-gel methods and tested as heterogeneous catalysts in the gas-phase conversion of ethanol. LaAlO3 presented a significant acidic character, with high formation of ethylene by ethanol dehydration. B-site substitutions increased the basicity of the catalysts, favoring the dehydrogenation of ethanol to acetaldehyde. The most reducible Cu- and Co-substituted materials, characterized by easier formation of surface oxygen vacancies, promoted the self-condensation of acetaldehyde by the Tishchenko mechanism, with formation of acetone and odd-carbon number products. Aldol coupling of acetaldehyde, favored on pure and Ga-substituted LaAlO3, led to the formation of butadiene and hexadiene. The role of Ga insertion, favoring both dehydrogenation of ethylene and dehydration of higher alcohols, corresponds to an amphoteric character. The formation of olefins and diolefins on all catalysts suggests that LaAl-based materials present the most acidic character among La-perovskites.

Effect of Zirconia Polymorph on Vapor-Phase Ketonization of Propionic Acid

Vapor-phase ketonization of propionic acid derived from biomass was studied at 300–375 °C over ZrO2 with different zirconia polymorph. The tetragonal ZrO2 (t-ZrO2) are more active than monoclinic ZrO2 (m-ZrO2). The results of characterizations from X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman suggest m-ZrO2 and t-ZrO2 are synthesized by the solvothermal method. NH3 and CO2 temperature-programmed desorption (NH3-TPD and CO2-TPD) measurements show that there were more medium-strength Lewis acid base sites with lower coordination exposed on m-ZrO2 relative to t-ZrO2, increasing the adsorption strength of propionic acid. The in situ DRIFTS (Diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy) of adsorbed propionic acid under ketonization reaction reveal that as the most abundant surface intermediates, the monodentate propionates are more active than bidentate propionates. In comparison with m-ZrO2, the t-ZrO2 surface favors monodentate adsorption over bidentate adsorption. Additionally, the adsorption strength of monodentate propionate is weaker on t-ZrO2. These differences in adsorption configuration and adsorption strength of propionic acid are affected by the zirconia structure. The higher surface concentration and weaker adsorption strength of monodentate propionates contribute to the higher ketonization rate in the steady state.

TiO2 and ZrO2 in biomass conversion: why catalyst reduction helps

Biomass refers to plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed. As an energy source, lignocellulosic biomass (lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose) can be converted into various forms of biofuel using thermal, chemical and biochemical methods. Chemical conversion implies the use of solid catalysts, usually oxide materials. In this context, reducible oxides are considered to be more active than non-reducible oxides. But why? Using density functional theory DFT + U calculations with the inclusion of dispersion forces, we describe the properties of anatase TiO2, a reducible oxide, and tetragonal ZrO2, a non-reducible oxide, the (101) surfaces in this context. In particular, we focus on the role of surface reduction, either by direct creation of oxygen vacancies via O2 desorption, or by treatment in hydrogen. We show that the presence of reduced centres on the surface of titania or zirconia (either Ti3+ or Zr3+ ions, or oxygen vacancies) results in lower barriers and more stable intermediates in two key reactions in biomass catalytic conversion: ketonization of acetic acid (studied on ZrO2) and deoxygenation of phenol (studied on TiO2). We discuss the role of Ru nanoparticles in these processes, and in particular in favouring H2 dissociation and hydrogen spillover, which results in hydroxylated surfaces. We suggest that H2O desorption from the hydroxylated surfaces may be a relevant mechanism for the regeneration of oxygen vacancies, in particular on low-coordinated sites of oxide nanoparticles. Finally, we discuss the role of nanostructuring in favouring oxide reduction, by discussing the properties of ZrO2 nanoparticles of diameter of about 2 nm.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Providing sustainable catalytic solutions for a rapidly changing world'.

Zirconia catalysed acetic acid ketonisation for pre-treatment of biomass fast pyrolysis vapours

Weak Lewis acid sites (and/or resulting acid–base pairs) on monoclinic ZrO₂ are identified as the active species responsible for acetic acid ketonisation to acetone.

Reduction of Hydrogenated ZrO2 Nanoparticles by Water Desorption

Reduction of zirconia by water desorption from a hydrogenated surface is the topic of this study. The focus is on the role of nanostructuring the oxide reducibility measured by the cost of formation of oxygen vacancies by water desorption. We have performed density functional theory calculations using the Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof + U approach and including dispersion forces on the adsorption, dissociation, diffusion of hydrogen on the ZrO₂ (101) surface and on Zr₁₆O₃₂, Zr₄₀O₈₀, and Zr₈₀O₁₆₀ nanoparticles (NPs). The process involves the formation of a precursor state via diffusion of hydrogen on the surface of zirconia. The results show that O vacancy formation via H₂O desorption is more convenient than via direct O₂ desorption. The formation of an O_sH₂ surface precursor state to water desorption is the rate-determining step. This step is highly unfavorable on the ZrO₂ (101) surface both thermodynamically and kinetically. On the contrary, on zirconia NPs, characterized by the presence of low coordinated ions, water desorption becomes accessible such that even at temperatures close to 450 K the reaction becomes exergonic. The study shows the role of nanostructuring on the chemical and electronic properties of an oxide.