1
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Chen L, Allec SI, Nguyen MT, Kovarik L, Hoffman AS, Hong J, Meira D, Shi H, Bare SR, Glezakou VA, Rousseau R, Szanyi J. Dynamic Evolution of Palladium Single Atoms on Anatase Titania Support Determines the Reverse Water-Gas Shift Activity. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:10847-10860. [PMID: 37145876 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c02326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Research interest in single-atom catalysts (SACs) has been continuously increasing. However, the lack of understanding of the dynamic behaviors of SACs during applications hinders catalyst development and mechanistic understanding. Herein, we report on the evolution of active sites over Pd/TiO2-anatase SAC (Pd1/TiO2) in the reverse water-gas shift (rWGS) reaction. Combining kinetics, in situ characterization, and theory, we show that at T ≥ 350 °C, the reduction of TiO2 by H2 alters the coordination environment of Pd, creating Pd sites with partially cleaved Pd-O interfacial bonds and a unique electronic structure that exhibit high intrinsic rWGS activity through the carboxyl pathway. The activation by H2 is accompanied by the partial sintering of single Pd atoms (Pd1) into disordered, flat, ∼1 nm diameter clusters (Pdn). The highly active Pd sites in the new coordination environment under H2 are eliminated by oxidation, which, when performed at a high temperature, also redisperses Pdn and facilitates the reduction of TiO2. In contrast, Pd1 sinters into crystalline, ∼5 nm particles (PdNP) during CO treatment, deactivating Pd1/TiO2. During the rWGS reaction, the two Pd evolution pathways coexist. The activation by H2 dominates, leading to the increasing rate with time-on-stream, and steady-state Pd active sites similar to the ones formed under H2. This work demonstrates how the coordination environment and nuclearity of metal sites on a SAC evolve during catalysis and pretreatments and how their activity is modulated by these behaviors. These insights on SAC dynamics and the structure-function relationship are valuable to mechanistic understanding and catalyst design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linxiao Chen
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Sarah I Allec
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Manh-Thuong Nguyen
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Libor Kovarik
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Adam S Hoffman
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Jiyun Hong
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Debora Meira
- Canadian Light Source Inc., 44 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 2V3, Canada
| | - Honghong Shi
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Simon R Bare
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | | | - Roger Rousseau
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - János Szanyi
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
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2
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Ligand-coordination effects on the selective hydrogenation of acetylene in single-site Pd-ligand supported catalysts. J Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2022.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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3
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Zaera F. Designing Sites in Heterogeneous Catalysis: Are We Reaching Selectivities Competitive With Those of Homogeneous Catalysts? Chem Rev 2022; 122:8594-8757. [PMID: 35240777 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A critical review of different prominent nanotechnologies adapted to catalysis is provided, with focus on how they contribute to the improvement of selectivity in heterogeneous catalysis. Ways to modify catalytic sites range from the use of the reversible or irreversible adsorption of molecular modifiers to the immobilization or tethering of homogeneous catalysts and the development of well-defined catalytic sites on solid surfaces. The latter covers methods for the dispersion of single-atom sites within solid supports as well as the use of complex nanostructures, and it includes the post-modification of materials via processes such as silylation and atomic layer deposition. All these methodologies exhibit both advantages and limitations, but all offer new avenues for the design of catalysts for specific applications. Because of the high cost of most nanotechnologies and the fact that the resulting materials may exhibit limited thermal or chemical stability, they may be best aimed at improving the selective synthesis of high value-added chemicals, to be incorporated in organic synthesis schemes, but other applications are being explored as well to address problems in energy production, for instance, and to design greener chemical processes. The details of each of these approaches are discussed, and representative examples are provided. We conclude with some general remarks on the future of this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Zaera
- Department of Chemistry and UCR Center for Catalysis, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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4
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Zakem G, Ro I, Finzel J, Christopher P. Support functionalization as an approach for modifying activation entropies of catalytic reactions on atomically dispersed metal sites. J Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2021.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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5
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Zhou X, Sterbinsky GE, Wasim E, Chen L, Tait SL. Tuning Ligand-Coordinated Single Metal Atoms on TiO 2 and their Dynamic Response during Hydrogenation Catalysis. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:3825-3837. [PMID: 33955201 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202100208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ligand-coordinated supported catalysts (LCSCs) are of growing interest for heterogeneous single-atom catalysis. Here, the effect of the choice of organic ligand on the activity and stability of TiO2 -supported single-atom Pt-ligand catalysts was investigated for ethylene hydrogenation. The activity of these catalysts showed a significant dependence on the choice of ligand and also correlated with coordination number for Pt-ligand and Pt-Cl- . Of the three ligands examined in this study, the one with the lowest Pt coordination number, 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione (PDO), showed the lowest reaction temperature and highest reaction rate, likely due to those metal sites being more accessible to reactant adsorption. In-situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) experiments showed that the activity also correlated with good heterolytic dissociation of hydrogen, which was supported by OH/OD exchange experiments and was the rate-determining step of the hydrogenation reaction. In these in-situ XAS experiments up to 190 °C, the supported Pt-ligand catalyst showed excellent stability against structural and chemical change. Instead of Pt, the PDO ligand could be coordinated with Ir on TiO2 to form Ir LCSCs that showed slow activation by loss of Ir-Cl bonds, then excellent stability in the hydrogenation of ethylene. These results provide the chance to engineer ligand-coordinated supported catalysts at the single-atom catalyst level by the choice of ligand and enable new applications at relatively high temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemei Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, Indiana, 47405, USA
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University No. 24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, 610065, P. R. China
| | - George E Sterbinsky
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Lemont, Illinois, 60439, USA
| | - Eman Wasim
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, Indiana, 47405, USA
| | - Linxiao Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, Indiana, 47405, USA
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, 99352, USA
| | - Steven L Tait
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, Indiana, 47405, USA
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6
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Chen L, Ali IS, Sterbinsky GE, Zhou X, Wasim E, Tait SL. Ligand-coordinated Ir single-atom catalysts stabilized on oxide supports for ethylene hydrogenation and their evolution under a reductive atmosphere. Catal Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy01132k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Effective, stable, durable, and tunable Ir-ligand single-atom catalysts for ethylene hydrogenation, studied in situ for structural evolution of Ir single-atoms under a reducing atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linxiao Chen
- Dept. of Chemistry
- Indiana University
- Indiana 47405
- USA
| | - Iyad S. Ali
- Dept. of Chemistry
- Indiana University
- Indiana 47405
- USA
| | | | - Xuemei Zhou
- Dept. of Chemistry
- Indiana University
- Indiana 47405
- USA
| | - Eman Wasim
- Dept. of Chemistry
- Indiana University
- Indiana 47405
- USA
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7
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Misawa-Suzuki T, Etoh M, Nagao H. Interactions of Ruthenium(III) Complexes Bearing Bis(2-pyridylcarbonyl)aminate with Cations at the Carbonyl Group. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2020. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20200127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mami Etoh
- Sophia University, 7-1 Kioicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Nagao
- Sophia University, 7-1 Kioicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan
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8
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Jiang H, Yao C, Wang Y, Zhang M. Synthesis and catalytic performance of highly dispersed platinum nanoparticles supported on alumina via supercritical fluid deposition. J Supercrit Fluids 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2020.105014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Wang K, Wang X, Liang X. Synthesis of High Metal Loading Single Atom Catalysts and Exploration of the Active Center Structure. ChemCatChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202001255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaiying Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Missouri University of Science and Technology Rolla MO 65409 USA
| | - Xiaofeng Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering Dalian Maritime University Dalian 116026 P.R. China
| | - Xinhua Liang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Missouri University of Science and Technology Rolla MO 65409 USA
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10
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Lang R, Du X, Huang Y, Jiang X, Zhang Q, Guo Y, Liu K, Qiao B, Wang A, Zhang T. Single-Atom Catalysts Based on the Metal–Oxide Interaction. Chem Rev 2020; 120:11986-12043. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Lang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
| | - Xiaorui Du
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Yike Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xunzhu Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yalin Guo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Kaipeng Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Botao Qiao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Aiqin Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Applied Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
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11
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Nelson NC, Chen L, Meira D, Kovarik L, Szanyi J. In Situ Dispersion of Palladium on TiO 2 During Reverse Water-Gas Shift Reaction: Formation of Atomically Dispersed Palladium. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:17657-17663. [PMID: 32589820 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202007576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The application of single-atom catalysts (SACs) to high-temperature hydrogenation requires materials that thermodynamically favor metal atom isolation over cluster formation. We demonstrate that Pd can be predominantly dispersed as isolated atoms onto TiO2 during the reverse water-gas shift (rWGS) reaction at 400 °C. Achieving atomic dispersion requires an artificial increase of the absolute TiO2 surface area by an order of magnitude and can be accomplished by physically mixing a precatalyst (Pd/TiO2 ) with neat TiO2 prior to the rWGS reaction. The in situ dispersion of Pd was reflected through a continuous increase of rWGS activity over 92 h and supported by kinetic analysis, infrared and X-ray absorption spectroscopies and scanning transmission electron microscopy. The thermodynamic stability of Pd under high-temperature rWGS conditions is associated with Pd-Ti coordination, which manifests upon O-vacancy formation, and the artificial increase in TiO2 surface area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Nelson
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Linxiao Chen
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Debora Meira
- CLS@APS sector 20, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL, 60439, USA.,Canadian Light Source Inc., 44 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 2V3, Canada
| | - Libor Kovarik
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - János Szanyi
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
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12
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Nelson NC, Chen L, Meira D, Kovarik L, Szanyi J. In Situ Dispersion of Palladium on TiO
2
During Reverse Water–Gas Shift Reaction: Formation of Atomically Dispersed Palladium. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202007576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C. Nelson
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland WA 99352 USA
| | - Linxiao Chen
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland WA 99352 USA
| | - Debora Meira
- CLS@APS sector 20 Advanced Photon Source Argonne National Laboratory 9700 S. Cass Avenue Argonne IL 60439 USA
- Canadian Light Source Inc. 44 Innovation Boulevard Saskatoon Saskatchewan S7N 2V3 Canada
| | - Libor Kovarik
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland WA 99352 USA
| | - János Szanyi
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland WA 99352 USA
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13
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Xin Y, Zhang N, Lv Y, Wang J, Li Q, Zhang Z. From nanoparticles to single atoms for Pt/CeO2: Synthetic strategies, characterizations and applications. J RARE EARTH 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jre.2020.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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14
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Chen L, Ali IS, Tait SL. Bidentate N‐based Ligands for Highly Reusable, Ligand‐coordinated, Supported Pt Hydrosilylation Catalysts. ChemCatChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202000085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linxiao Chen
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University Bloomington Bloomington IN 47401 USA
- Institute for Integrated Catalysis Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland WA 99352 USA
| | - Iyad S. Ali
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University Bloomington Bloomington IN 47401 USA
| | - Steven L. Tait
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University Bloomington Bloomington IN 47401 USA
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15
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Zhou X, Chen L, Sterbinsky GE, Mukherjee D, Unocic RR, Tait SL. Pt-Ligand single-atom catalysts: tuning activity by oxide support defect density. Catal Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cy02594d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Metal–ligand coordination stabilizes single atom Pt on pristine and defective TiO2 supports to impact local coordination and catalytic hydrosilylation activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemei Zhou
- Department of Chemistry
- Indiana University
- Bloomington
- USA
| | - Linxiao Chen
- Department of Chemistry
- Indiana University
- Bloomington
- USA
| | | | - Debangshu Mukherjee
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
| | - Raymond R. Unocic
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Oak Ridge
- USA
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16
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Li X, Yang X, Huang Y, Zhang T, Liu B. Supported Noble-Metal Single Atoms for Heterogeneous Catalysis. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1902031. [PMID: 31282036 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201902031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Single-atom catalysts (SACs), with atomically distributed active metal sites on supports, serve as a newly advanced material in catalysis, and open broad prospects for a wide variety of catalytic processes owing to their unique catalytic behaviors. To construct SACs with precise structures and high density of accessible single-atom sites, while preventing aggregation to large nanoparticles, various strategies for their chemical synthesis have been recently developed by improving the distribution and chemical bonding of active sites on supports, which results in excellent activity and selectivity in a variety of catalytic reactions. Noble-metal-based SACs are discussed, and their structural properties, chemical synthesis, and catalytic applications are highlighted. The structure-activity relationships and the underlying catalytic mechanisms are addressed, including the influences of surface species and reducibility of supports on the activity and stability, impact of the unique structural and electronic properties of single-atom centers modulated by metal/support interactions on catalytic activity and selectivity, and how the modified catalytic mechanism obtained by inhibiting the multiatoms involves catalytic pathways. Finally, the prospects and challenges for development in this field are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuning Li
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Xiaofeng Yang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Yanqiang Huang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Bin Liu
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
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17
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Chen L, Ali IS, Sterbinsky GE, Gamler JTL, Skrabalak SE, Tait SL. Alkene Hydrosilylation on Oxide‐Supported Pt‐Ligand Single‐Site Catalysts. ChemCatChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201900530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linxiao Chen
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington Indiana 47405 USA
| | - Iyad S. Ali
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington Indiana 47405 USA
| | - George E. Sterbinsky
- Advanced Photon Source Argonne National Laboratory 9700 S. Cass Ave., Lemont Illinois 60439 USA
| | - Jocelyn T. L. Gamler
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington Indiana 47405 USA
| | - Sara E. Skrabalak
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington Indiana 47405 USA
| | - Steven L. Tait
- Department of Chemistry Indiana University 800 E. Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington Indiana 47405 USA
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