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Annuar NAK, Azlan UK, Mediani A, Tong X, Han R, Al-Olayan E, Baharum SN, Bunawan H, Sarian MN, Hamezah HS, Jantan I. An insight review on the neuropharmacological effects, mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of mitragynine. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 171:116134. [PMID: 38219389 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine is one of the main psychoactive alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (kratom). It has opium-like effects by acting on μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptors in the brain. The compound also interacts with other receptors, such as adrenergic and serotonergic receptors and neuronal Ca2+ channels in the central nervous system to have its neuropharmacological effects. Mitragynine has the potential to treat diseases related to neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, as its modulation on the opioid receptors has been reported extensively. This review aimed to provide an up-to-date and critical overview on the neuropharmacological effects, mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and safety of mitragynine as a prospective psychotropic agent. Its multiple neuropharmacological effects on the brain include antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, sedative, stimulant, cognitive, and anxiolytic activities. The potential of mitragynine to manage opioid withdrawal symptoms related to opioid dependence, its pharmacokinetics and toxic effects were also discussed. The interaction of mitragynine with various receptors in the brain produce diverse neuropharmacological effects, which have beneficial properties in neurological disorders. However, further studies need to be carried out on mitragynine to uncover its complex mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamic profiles, addictive potential, and safe dosage to prevent harmful side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Aisyah Khairul Annuar
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ummi Kalthum Azlan
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmed Mediani
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Xiaohui Tong
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Rongchun Han
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Ebtesam Al-Olayan
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syarul Nataqain Baharum
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hamidun Bunawan
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Murni Nazira Sarian
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hamizah Shahirah Hamezah
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ibrahim Jantan
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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Citti C, Laganà A, Capriotti AL, Montone CM, Cannazza G. Kratom: The analytical challenge of an emerging herbal drug. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1703:464094. [PMID: 37262932 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa or kratom is emerging worldwide as a "legal" herbal drug of abuse. An increasing number of papers is appearing in the scientific literature regarding its pharmacological profile and the analysis of its chemical constituents, mainly represented by alkaloids. However, its detection and identification are not straightforward as the plant material is not particularly distinctive. Hyphenated techniques are generally preferred for the identification and quantification of these compounds, especially the main purported psychoactive substances, mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), in raw and commercial products. Considering the vast popularity of this recreational drug and the growing concern about its safety, the analysis of alkaloids in biological specimens is also of great importance for forensic and toxicological laboratories. The review addresses the analytical aspects of kratom spanning the extraction techniques used to isolate the alkaloids, the qualitative and quantitative analytical methods and the strategies for the distinction of the naturally occurring isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, Modena 41125, Italy.
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Hughs M, Kish-Trier E, O'Brien A, McMillin GA. Analysis of Mitragynine and Speciociliatine in Umbilical Cord by LC-MS-MS for Detecting Prenatal Exposure to Kratom. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 46:957-964. [PMID: 36047661 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Kratom is an herbal drug that is legal in the USA. While it is marketed as a safer alternative to opioids, it can cause opioid-like withdrawal symptoms when discontinued after regular use. Several case studies have shown that kratom exposure in utero can lead to symptoms in newborns consistent with neonatal abstinence syndrome. Here, we present a validated method for the detection of kratom in umbilical cord by liquid chromatography--tandem mass spectrometry. The umbilical cord is homogenized in solvent and kratom analytes are purified by solid phase extraction (strong cation exchange). Diastereomeric kratom alkaloids mitragynine (MG), speciociliatine (SC), speciogynine and mitraciliatine are separated by reverse phase chromatography on a phenyl-hexyl column. Applying this method to residual umbilical cords submitted to our laboratory for drug testing, 29 positive specimens exhibiting varied kratom analyte distributions were observed. MG and SC were the most abundant kratom analytes and were selected as biomarkers of kratom exposure. A cutoff concentration of 0.08 ng/g was established for both MG and SC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Hughs
- ARUP Institute for Clinical and Experimental Pathology, 500 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Erik Kish-Trier
- ARUP Institute for Clinical and Experimental Pathology, 500 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Aidin O'Brien
- ARUP Institute for Clinical and Experimental Pathology, 500 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Gwendolyn A McMillin
- ARUP Institute for Clinical and Experimental Pathology, 500 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive, East Street #1100, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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4
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PCR combined with lateral flow immunochromatographic assay to differentiate the narcotic Mitragyna speciosa from related species and detect it in forensic evidence. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 331:111149. [PMID: 34933184 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Plants in the genus Mitragyna (Rubiaceae) are used in traditional medicine because of their broad therapeutic activity. Four Mitragyna species, M. speciosa (Roxb.) Korth. (MS), M. rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze (MR), M. diversifolia (Wall. ex G. Don) Havil. (MD), and M. hirsuta Havil. (MH), occur in Thailand. M. speciosa, commonly known as 'Kratom' in Thai, is the only narcotic species for which buying, selling, importing or possessing has been prohibited by law in Thailand and some other countries. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, the major psychoactive compounds, are important in the treatment of opioid withdrawal. However, this species is used in traditional medicine to relieve pain and inflammation. Consequently, a rapid and easy technique for differentiating M. speciosa from closely related species is needed for routine forensic analysis. In this study, polymerase chain reaction coupled with lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (PCR-LFA) based on matK was developed for the detection of M. speciosa in forensic specimens. Duplex primers (MS-F-FAM, Ctrl-F-DIG and Ctrl-R-Biotin) were designed based on species-specific nucleotide indels observed exclusively in the matK sequences of M. speciosa. Positive results for M. speciosa are indicated by the clear presence of three black lines on the lateral flow cassette. Forensic samples were investigated, and the three black test lines indicating M. speciosa were observed for seven of eight specimens. PCR-LFA has been proven to be fast, easy and efficient for detecting the narcotic M. speciosa and could be developed as a rapid forensic diagnostic technique for other plants.
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Hartley C, Bulloch M, Penzak SR. Clinical Pharmacology of the Dietary Supplement, Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 62:577-593. [PMID: 34775626 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) consists of over 40 alkaloids with two of them, mitragynine (MG) and 7-OH-mitragynine (7-OH-MG) being the main psychoactive compounds. MG and 7-OH-MG each target opioid receptors and have been referred to as atypical opioids. They exert their pharmacologic effects on the μ, δ, and κ opioid receptors. In addition, they affect adrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic pathways. Kratom has been touted as an inexpensive, legal alternative to standard opioid replacement therapy such as methadone and buprenorphine. Other uses for kratom include chronic pain, attaining a "legal high," and numerous CNS disorders including anxiety depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Kratom induces analgesia and mild euphoria with a lower risk of respiratory depression or adverse central nervous system effects compared to traditional opioid medications. Nonetheless, kratom has been associated with both physical and psychological dependence with some individuals experiencing classic opioid withdrawal symptoms upon abrupt cessation. Kratom use has been linked to serious adverse effects including liver toxicity, seizures, and death. These risks are often compounded by poly-substance abuse. Further, kratom may potentiate the toxicity of coadministered medications through modulation of cytochrome P450, P-glycoprotein, and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase enzymes (UGDT). In 2016 the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) took steps to classify kratom as a federal schedule 1 medication; however, due to public resistance, this plan was set aside. Until studies are conducted that define kratom's role in treating opioid withdrawal and/or other CNS conditions, kratom will likely remain available as a dietary supplement for the foreseeable future. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad Hartley
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, 36849, United States
| | - Marilyn Bulloch
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, 36849, United States
| | - Scott R Penzak
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, 36849, United States
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6
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Overview of the major classes of new psychoactive substances, psychoactive effects, analytical determination and conformational analysis of selected illegal drugs. OPEN CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/chem-2021-0196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The misuse of psychoactive substances is attracting a great deal of attention from the general public. An increase use of psychoactive substances is observed among young people who do not have enough awareness of the harmful effects of these substances. Easy access to illicit drugs at low cost and lack of effective means of routine screening for new psychoactive substances (NPS) have contributed to the rapid increase in their use. New research and evidence suggest that drug use can cause a variety of adverse psychological and physiological effects on human health (anxiety, panic, paranoia, psychosis, and seizures). We describe different classes of these NPS drugs with emphasis on the methods used to identify them and the identification of their metabolites in biological specimens. This is the first review that thoroughly gives the literature on both natural and synthetic illegal drugs with old known data and very hot new topics and investigations, which enables the researcher to use it as a starting point in the literature exploration and planning of the own research. For the first time, the conformational analysis was done for selected illegal drugs, giving rise to the search of the biologically active conformations both theoretically and using lab experiments.
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Ismail I, Wahab S, Sidi H, Das S, Lin LJ, Razali R. Kratom and Future Treatment for the Opioid Addiction and Chronic Pain: Periculo Beneficium? Curr Drug Targets 2020; 20:166-172. [PMID: 28443503 DOI: 10.2174/1389450118666170425154120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a naturally existing plant found in South-East Asia, is traditionally used as a herb to help elevate a person's energy and also to treat numerous medical ailments. Other than the analgesic property, kratom has been used as an agent to overcome opioid withdrawal as it contains natural alkaloids, i.e. mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, and MGM-9, which has agonist affinity on the opioid receptors, including mu (µ) and kappa (κ). The role of neural reward pathways linked to µ-opioid receptors and both dopaminergic and gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic interneurons that express µ-opioid receptors were deliberated. However, kratom has been reported to be abused together with other illicit substances with high risk of potential addiction. There are also anecdotes of adverse effects and toxicity of kratom, i.e. tremor, fatigue, seizure, and death. Different countries have distinctive regulation and policy on the plantation and use of this plant when most of the countries banned the use of it because of its addiction problems and side effects. The aim of this review is to highlight on the potential use of kratom, unique 'herbs" as a substitution therapy for chronic pain and opioid addiction, based on the neurobiological perspective of pain and the underlying mechanism of actions of drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismaliza Ismail
- Department of Psychiatry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Suzaily Wahab
- Department of Psychiatry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hatta Sidi
- Department of Psychiatry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Srijit Das
- Department of Anatomy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Loo Jiann Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Rosdinom Razali
- Department of Psychiatry, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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8
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Basiliere S, Kerrigan S. Identification of metabolites and potential biomarkers of kratom in urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1140:121971. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.121971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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9
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Lo Faro AF, Di Trana A, La Maida N, Tagliabracci A, Giorgetti R, Busardò FP. Biomedical analysis of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) of natural origin. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 179:112945. [PMID: 31704129 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2019.112945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) can be divided into two main groups: synthetic molecules and active principles of natural origin. With respect to this latter group, a wide range of alkaloids contained in plants, mainly from Asia and South America, can be included in the class of NPS of natural origin. The majority NPS of natural origin presents stimulant and/or hallucinogenic effects (e.g. Catha edulis and Ayahuasca, respectively) while few of them show sedative and relaxing properties (e.g. kratom). Few information is available in relation to the analytical identification of psychoactive principles contained in the plant material. Moreover, to our knowledge, scarce data are present in literature, about the characterization and quantification of the parent drug in biological matrices from intoxication and fatality cases. In addition, the metabolism of natural active principles has not been yet fully investigated for most of the psychoactive substances from plant material. Consequently, their identification is not frequently performed and produced metabolites are often unknown. To fill this gap, we reviewed the currently available analytical methodologies for the identification and quantification of NPS of natural origin in plant material and, whenever possible, in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices of intoxicated and dead subjects. The psychoactive principles contained in the following plants were investigated: Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Ipomoea violacea, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Pausinystalia yohimbe, Piper methisticum, Psilocybe, Rivea corymbosa, Salvia divinorum, Sceletium tortuosum, Lactuca virosa. From the results obtained, it can be evidenced that although several analytical methods for the simultaneous quantification of different molecules from the same plants have been developed and validated, a comprehensive method to detect active compounds from different natural specimens both in biological and non-biological matrices is still lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Fabrizio Lo Faro
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Annagiulia Di Trana
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Adriano Tagliabracci
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy.
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Meireles V, Rosado T, Barroso M, Soares S, Gonçalves J, Luís Â, Caramelo D, Simão AY, Fernández N, Duarte AP, Gallardo E. Mitragyna speciosa: Clinical, Toxicological Aspects and Analysis in Biological and Non-Biological Samples. MEDICINES 2019; 6:medicines6010035. [PMID: 30836609 PMCID: PMC6473843 DOI: 10.3390/medicines6010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The abuse of psychotropic substances is a well-known phenomenon, and many of them are usually associated with ancestral traditions and home remedies. This is the case of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), a tropical tree used to improve work performance and to withstand great heat. According to several published studies, the main reasons for kratom consumption involve improving sexual performance and endurance, but also social and recreational uses for the feeling of happiness and euphoria; it is also used for medical purposes as a pain reliever, and in the treatment of diarrhea, fever, diabetes, and hypertension. However, this plant has gained more popularity amongst young people over the last years. Since it is available on the internet for purchase, its use is now widely as a drug of abuse, namely as a new psychoactive substance, being a cheaper alternative to opioids that does not require medical prescription in most countries. According to internet surveys by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction in 2008 and 2011, kratom was one of the most widely supplied new psychoactive substances. The composition of kratom is complex; in fact, more than 40 different alkaloids have been identified in Mitragyna speciosa so far, the major constituent being mitragynine, which is exclusive to this plant. Besides mitragynine, alkaloids such as corynantheidine and 7-hydroxamitragynine also present pharmacological effects, a feature that may be attributed to the remaining constituents as well. The main goal of this review is not only to understand the origin, chemistry, consumption, and analytical methodologies for analysis and mechanism of action, but also the use of secondary metabolites of kratom as therapeutic drugs and the assessment of potential risks associated with its consumption, in order to aid health professionals, toxicologists, and police authorities in cases where this plant is present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vânia Meireles
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Tiago Rosado
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses-Delegação do Sul, 1169-201 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Sofia Soares
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Joana Gonçalves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ângelo Luís
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Débora Caramelo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Ana Y Simão
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Nicolás Fernández
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Toxicología y Química Legal, Laboratorio de Asesoramiento Toxicológico Analítico (CENATOXA). Junín 956 7mo piso. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA), Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina.
| | - Ana Paula Duarte
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
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Basiliere S, Bryand K, Kerrigan S. Identification of five Mitragyna alkaloids in urine using liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1080:11-19. [PMID: 29459087 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) is a psychoactive plant that has recently emerged as a recreational drug. Mitragyna alkaloids are not within the scope of traditional forensic toxicology screening methods, which may contribute to under-reporting. Solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q/TOF-MS) were used to identify five alkaloids in urine. Target analytes included the two known psychoactive compounds, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, in addition to speciociliatine, speciogynine, and paynantheine. Two deuterated internal standards (mitragynine-D3 and 7-hydroxymitragynine-D3) were employed. Using traditional reversed phase chromatography all compounds and isomers were separated in 10 min. The procedure was validated in accordance with the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Toxicology (SWGTOX) Standard Practices for Method Validation. Extraction efficiencies were 63-96% and limits of quantitation were 0.5-1 ng/mL. Precision, bias and matrix effects were all within acceptable thresholds, with the exception of 7-hydroxymitragynine, which is notably unstable and unsuitable for quantitative analysis. In this paper we present a simultaneous quantitative analytical method for mitragynine, speciociliatine, speciogynine and paynantheine, and a qualitative assay for 7-hydroxymitragynine in urine using high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Basiliere
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States
| | - Kelsie Bryand
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States.
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Limsuwanchote S, Putalun W, Tanaka H, Morimoto S, Keawpradub N, Wungsintaweekul J. Development of an immunochromatographic strip incorporating anti-mitragynine monoclonal antibody conjugated to colloidal gold for kratom alkaloids detection. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:1168-1175. [PMID: 29287305 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A lateral flow-based immunochromatographic strip was developed for the rapid detection of mitragynine (MG), a dominant alkaloid found in the leaves of kratom. Monoclonal antibody (mAb) against MG (anti-MG mAb) was conjugated to colloidal gold and used as a recognition probe. MG-ovalbumin conjugate (MG-OVA) and goat anti-mouse IgG were immobilized on the strip to produce a test zone and control zone, respectively. Based on the principle of a competitive assay, MG in a test sample competed with MG-OVA resident in the test zone to bind with colloidal gold-anti-MG mAb, resulting in an inverse relation of color intensity at the test zone and MG amount. The limit of detection (LOD) of the immunochromatographic strip is determined at 1 mg/mL of MG by visual assessment and 0.60 mg/mL by Image J analysis. The developed immunochromatographic strip can determine MG in kratom cocktails and kratom leaf samples. It could serve as a rapid and simple diagnostic kit for the detection of MG in kratom samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Supattra Limsuwanchote
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Waraporn Putalun
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
| | - Hiroyuki Tanaka
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Morimoto
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Niwat Keawpradub
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - Juraithip Wungsintaweekul
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
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13
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Lee MJ, Ramanathan S, Mansor SM, Yeong KY, Tan SC. Method validation in quantitative analysis of phase I and phase II metabolites of mitragynine in human urine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Biochem 2017; 543:146-161. [PMID: 29248503 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2017.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A method using solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to quantitatively detect mitragynine, 16-carboxy mitragynine, and 9-O-demethyl mitragynine in human urine samples was developed and validated. The relevant metabolites were identified using multiple reaction monitoring in positive ionization mode using nalorphine as an internal standard. The method was validated for accuracy, precision, recovery, linearity, and lower limit of quantitation. The intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision were found in the range of 83.6-117.5% with coefficient of variation less than 13%. The percentage of recovery for mitragynine, 16-carboxy mitragynine, and 9-O-demethyl mitragynine was within the range of 80.1-118.9%. The lower limit of quantification was 1 ng/mL for mitragynine, 2 ng/mL for 16-carboxy mitragynine, and 50 ng/mL for 9-O-demethyl mitragynine. The developed method was reproducible, high precision and accuracy with good linearity and recovery for mitragynine, 16-carboxy mitragynine, and 9-O-demethyl mitragynine in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Jin Lee
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Main Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research (CDR), Main Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Sharif Mahsufi Mansor
- Centre for Drug Research (CDR), Main Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Keng Yoon Yeong
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Main Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia; School of Science, Monash University Malaysia Campus, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway, 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Soo Choon Tan
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Main Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
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14
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Khoomrung S, Wanichthanarak K, Nookaew I, Thamsermsang O, Seubnooch P, Laohapand T, Akarasereenont P. Metabolomics and Integrative Omics for the Development of Thai Traditional Medicine. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:474. [PMID: 28769804 PMCID: PMC5513896 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, interest in studies of traditional medicine in Asian and African countries has gradually increased due to its potential to complement modern medicine. In this review, we provide an overview of Thai traditional medicine (TTM) current development, and ongoing research activities of TTM related to metabolomics. This review will also focus on three important elements of systems biology analysis of TTM including analytical techniques, statistical approaches and bioinformatics tools for handling and analyzing untargeted metabolomics data. The main objective of this data analysis is to gain a comprehensive understanding of the system wide effects that TTM has on individuals. Furthermore, potential applications of metabolomics and systems medicine in TTM will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakda Khoomrung
- Center of Applied Thai Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Siriraj Metabolomics and Phenomics Center, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Systems and Synthetic Biology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of TechnologyGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kwanjeera Wanichthanarak
- Center of Applied Thai Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Siriraj Metabolomics and Phenomics Center, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Intawat Nookaew
- Center of Applied Thai Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Systems and Synthetic Biology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of TechnologyGothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Biomedical Informatics, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical SciencesLittle Rock, AR, United States
| | - Onusa Thamsermsang
- Center of Applied Thai Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Patcharamon Seubnooch
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Tawee Laohapand
- Center of Applied Thai Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Pravit Akarasereenont
- Center of Applied Thai Traditional Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Siriraj Metabolomics and Phenomics Center, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
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15
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Mitragynine concentrations in two fatalities. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 271:e1-e7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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16
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Fuenffinger N, Ritchie M, Ruth A, Gryniewicz-Ruzicka C. “Evaluation of ion mobility spectrometry for the detection of mitragynine in kratom products”. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 134:282-286. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.11.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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17
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Limsuwanchote S, Putalun W, Keawpradub N, Tanaka H, Morimoto S, Wungsintaweekul J. Anti-mitragynine monoclonal antibody-based ELISA for determination of alkaloids in the kratom cocktail. Forensic Toxicol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-016-0332-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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Suhaimi FW, Yusoff NHM, Hassan R, Mansor SM, Navaratnam V, Müller CP, Hassan Z. Neurobiology of Kratom and its main alkaloid mitragynine. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:29-40. [PMID: 27018165 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom or its main alkaloid, mitragynine is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth which is indigenous to Southeast Asian countries. This substance has become widely available in other countries like Europe and United States due to its opium- and coca-like effects. In this article, we have reviewed available reports on mitragynine and other M. speciosa extracts. M. speciosa has been proven to have a rewarding effect and is effective in alleviating the morphine and ethanol withdrawal effects. However, studies in human revealed that prolonged consumption of this plant led to dependence and tolerance while cessation caused a series of aversive withdrawal symptoms. Findings also showed that M. speciosa extracts possess antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, and muscle relaxant properties. Available evidence further supports the adverse effects of M. speciosa preparations, mitragynine on cognition. Pharmacological activities are mainly mediated via opioid receptors as well as neuronal Ca2+ channels, expression of cAMP and CREB protein and via descending monoaminergic system. Physicochemical properties of mitragynine have been documented which may further explain the variation in pharmacological responses. In summary, current researchs on its main indole alkaloid, mitragynine suggest both therapeutic and addictive potential but further research on its molecular effects is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah W Suhaimi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Nurul H M Yusoff
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Rahimah Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Sharif M Mansor
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | | | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
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19
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Guddat S, Görgens C, Steinhart V, Schänzer W, Thevis M. Mitragynine (Kratom) - monitoring in sports drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2016; 8:1114-1118. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sven Guddat
- German Sport University Cologne; Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Preventive Doping Research; Cologne Germany
| | - Christian Görgens
- German Sport University Cologne; Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Preventive Doping Research; Cologne Germany
| | - Vanessa Steinhart
- German Sport University Cologne; Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Preventive Doping Research; Cologne Germany
| | - Wilhelm Schänzer
- German Sport University Cologne; Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Preventive Doping Research; Cologne Germany
| | - Mario Thevis
- German Sport University Cologne; Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Preventive Doping Research; Cologne Germany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents (EuMoCEDA); Cologne/Bonn Germany
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20
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Smith JP, Sutcliffe OB, Banks CE. An overview of recent developments in the analytical detection of new psychoactive substances (NPSs). Analyst 2016; 140:4932-48. [PMID: 26031385 DOI: 10.1039/c5an00797f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPSs), sometimes referred to as "legal highs" in more colloquial environments/the media, are a class of compounds that have been recently made available for abuse (not necessarily recently discovered) which provide similar effects to the traditional well studied illegal drugs but are not always controlled under existing local, regional or international drug legislation. Following an unprecedented increase in the number of NPSs in the last 5 years (with 101 substances discovered for the first time in 2014 alone) its, occasionally fatal, consequences have been extensively reported in the media. Such NPSs are typically marketed as 'not for human consumption' and are instead labelled and sold as plant food, bath salts as well as a whole host of other equally nondescript aliases in order to bypass legislative controls. NPSs are a new multi-disciplinary research field with the main emphasis in terms of forensic identification due to their adverse health effects, which can range from minimal to life threatening and even fatalities. In this mini-review we overview this recent emerging research area of NPSs and the analytical approaches reported to provide detection strategies as well as detailing recent reports towards providing point-of-care/in-the-field NPS ("legal high") sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie P Smith
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Science and the Environment, Division of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
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21
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Swogger MT, Hart E, Erowid F, Erowid E, Trabold N, Yee K, Parkhurst KA, Priddy BM, Walsh Z. Experiences of Kratom Users: A Qualitative Analysis. J Psychoactive Drugs 2015; 47:360-7. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2015.1096434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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22
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Neng NR, Ahmad SM, Gaspar H, Nogueira JMF. Determination of mitragynine in urine matrices by bar adsorptive microextraction and HPLC analysis. Talanta 2015; 144:105-9. [PMID: 26452798 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2015.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Bar adsorptive microextraction combined with liquid desorption followed by high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (BAµE-LD/HPLC-DAD) is proposed for the determination of the psychoactive alkaloid mitragynine (MG) in human urine matrices. By using a modified N-vinylpyrrolidone polymer (P2) sorbent phase, high selectivity and efficiency is achieved. Assays performed by BAµE(P2)-LD/HPLC-DAD on 25 mL water samples spiked at the 8.0 µg L(-1) level yielded average recoveries around 100% of MG, under optimized experimental conditions. The analytical performance showed good precision (RSD<15%), appropriated detection limits of 0.10 µg L(-1) and linear dynamic ranges (0.6-24.0 μg L(-1)) with convenient determination coefficients of 0.9924. By using the standard addition method, the application of the present methodology for the determination of MG in human urine matrices after Kratom consumer, allowed very good performances. The proposed methodology proved to be a suitable alternative to monitor MG in biological fluid matrices, showing to be easy to implement, reliable, sensitive and requiring low sample volumes, when compared with other sorbent-based methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- N R Neng
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - S M Ahmad
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - H Gaspar
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - J M F Nogueira
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
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23
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Nakabayashi R, Tsugawa H, Kitajima M, Takayama H, Saito K. Boosting Sensitivity in Liquid Chromatography-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance-Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Product Ion Analysis of Monoterpene Indole Alkaloids. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:1127. [PMID: 26734034 PMCID: PMC4681812 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.01127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In metabolomics, the analysis of product ions in tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is noteworthy to chemically assign structural information. However, the development of relevant analytical methods are less advanced. Here, we developed a method to boost sensitivity in liquid chromatography-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance-tandem mass spectrometry analysis (MS/MS boost analysis). To verify the MS/MS boost analysis, both quercetin and uniformly labeled (13)C quercetin were analyzed, revealing that the origin of the product ions is not the instrument, but the analyzed compounds resulting in sensitive product ions. Next, we applied this method to the analysis of monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs). The comparative analyses of MIAs having indole basic skeleton (ajmalicine, catharanthine, hirsuteine, and hirsutine) and oxindole skeleton (formosanine, isoformosanine, pteropodine, isopteropodine, rhynchophylline, isorhynchophylline, and mitraphylline) identified 86 and 73 common monoisotopic ions, respectively. The comparative analyses of the three pairs of stereoisomers showed more than 170 common monoisotopic ions in each pair. This method was also applied to the targeted analysis of MIAs in Catharanthus roseus and Uncaria rhynchophylla to profile indole and oxindole compounds using the product ions. This analysis is suitable for chemically assigning features of the metabolite groups, which contributes to targeted metabolome analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Nakabayashi
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource ScienceYokohama, Japan
- *Correspondence: Ryo Nakabayashi,
| | - Hiroshi Tsugawa
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource ScienceYokohama, Japan
| | - Mariko Kitajima
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba UniversityChiba, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Takayama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba UniversityChiba, Japan
| | - Kazuki Saito
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource ScienceYokohama, Japan
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba UniversityChiba, Japan
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24
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Rapid detection by direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS) of psychoactive plant drugs of abuse: The case of Mitragyna speciosa aka “Kratom”. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 242:210-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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25
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Wang M, Carrell EJ, Ali Z, Avula B, Avonto C, Parcher JF, Khan IA. Comparison of three chromatographic techniques for the detection of mitragynine and other indole and oxindole alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) plants. J Sep Sci 2014; 37:1411-8. [PMID: 24659356 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201301389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Leaves of the Southeast Asian plant Mitragyna speciosa are used to suppress pain and mitigate opioid withdrawal syndromes. The potential threat of abuse and ready availability of this uncontrolled psychoactive plant have led to the need for improved analytical techniques for the detection of the major active components, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Three independent chromatographic methods coupled to two detection systems, GC with MS, supercritical fluid chromatography with diode array detection, and HPLC with MS and diode array detection, were compared for the analysis of mitragynine and other indole and oxindole alkaloids in M. speciosa plants. The indole alkaloids included two sets of diastereoisomers: (i) paynantheine and 3-isopaynantheine and (ii) mitragynine, speciogynine, and speciociliatine. Two oxindole alkaloid diastereoisomers, corynoxine and corynoxine B, were also studied. The HPLC and supercritical fluid chromatography methods successfully resolved the major components with slightly different elution orders. The GC method was less satisfactory because it was unable to resolve mitragynine and speciociliatine. This separation was difficult by GC with a liquid stationary phase because these diastereoisomers differ only in the orientation of an interior hydrogen atom. The observed lack of resolution of the indole alkaloid diastereoisomers coupled with the likeness of the mass and tandem mass spectra, calls into question proposed GC methods for the analysis of mitragynine based on solely GC with MS separation and identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Wang
- National Center for Natural Products Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
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26
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Petruczynik A, Waksmundzka-Hajnos M. Application of hydrophilic interaction chromatography in phytochemical analysis. ACTA CHROMATOGR 2013. [DOI: 10.1556/achrom.25.2013.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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Parthasarathy S, Ramanathan S, Murugaiyah V, Hamdan MR, Said MIM, Lai CS, Mansor SM. A simple HPLC-DAD method for the detection and quantification of psychotropic mitragynine in Mitragyna speciosa (ketum) and its products for the application in forensic investigation. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 226:183-7. [PMID: 23385139 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, a native plant of Thailand and Malaysia known as 'ketum', is a plant of considerable interest. It exhibits strong antinociceptive effect and yet, acts like a psychostimulant. Due to the affordability and its ease of availability, the abuse of this plant as a substitute for other banned narcotics has become a major concern in many societies. In countries such as Thailand, Myanmar, Australia and Malaysia, the use of ketum is illegal. However, for a person to be charged for possessing or selling ketum, a reliable analytical method is needed in order to detect and identify the plant and its products. Mitragynine is the major alkaloid of ketum. This compound manifests its antinociceptive effects by acting on the opioid receptors. Since M. speciosa contain large quantity of mitragynine and it is exclusive to the species, the present analytical method is developed and validated for the purpose of screening ketum products based on this unique compound as the analytical marker. The method uses a HPLC-DAD system with Inertsil C8 (4.6 mm × 150 mm, 5 μm) as the column and a mixture of acetonitrile and formic acid, 50:50 (v/v), as the mobile phase. This method not only detects mitragynine, it can also be used to quantify the amount of mitragynine in the sample. The limit of detection is 0.25 μg/ml, while the limit of quantification is 0.50 μg/ml. The method is quick, simple and reliable with an accuracy of 97.27-101.74% and coefficient of variations of between 0.91 and 3.96%. The method has been tested and found suitable for the identification and quantification of mitragynine in dried plants, a variety of ketum extracts, as well as ketum drink obtained from the market.
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28
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Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, Yusoff NHM, Suhaimi FW, Vadivelu R, Vicknasingam BK, Amato D, von Hörsten S, Ismail NIW, Jayabalan N, Hazim AI, Mansor SM, Müller CP. From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012. [PMID: 23206666 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (or Ketum) is a psychoactive plant preparation used in Southeast Asia. It is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Kratom as well as its main alkaloid, mitragynine, currently spreads around the world. Thus, addiction potential and adverse health consequences are becoming an important issue for health authorities. Here we reviewed the available evidence and identified future research needs. It was found that mitragynine and M. speciosa preparations are systematically consumed with rather well defined instrumentalization goals, e.g. to enhance tolerance for hard work or as a substitute in the self-treatment of opiate addiction. There is also evidence from experimental animal models supporting analgesic, muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory as well as strong anorectic effects. In humans, regular consumption may escalate, lead to tolerance and may yield aversive withdrawal effects. Mitragynine and its derivatives actions in the central nervous system involve μ-opioid receptors, neuronal Ca²⁺ channels and descending monoaminergic projections. Altogether, available data currently suggest both, a therapeutic as well as an abuse potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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Le D, Goggin MM, Janis GC. Analysis of Mitragynine and Metabolites in Human Urine for Detecting the Use of the Psychoactive Plant Kratom. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 36:616-25. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bks073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Abstract
AbstractHydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) is an increasingly popular alternative to conventional HPLC for drug analysis. It offers increased selectivity and sensitivity, and improved efficiency when quantifying drugs and related compounds in complex matrices such as biological and environmental samples, pharmaceutical formulations, food, and animal feed. In this review we summarize HILIC methods recently developed for drug analysis (2006–2011). In addition, a list of important applications is provided, including experimental conditions and a brief summary of results. The references provide a comprehensive overview of current HILIC applications in drug analysis.
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31
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Orio L, Alexandru L, Cravotto G, Mantegna S, Barge A. UAE, MAE, SFE-CO2 and classical methods for the extraction of Mitragyna speciosa leaves. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2012; 19:591-595. [PMID: 22054912 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2011.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, a tropical plant indigenous to Southeast Asia, is well known for its psychoactive properties. Its leaves are traditionally chewed by Thai and Malaysian farmers and manual labourers as it causes a numbing, stimulating effect. The present study aims to evaluate alkaloid yield and composition in the leaf extracts. For this purpose we have compared several non-conventional extraction techniques with classic procedures (room temperature or under heating). Dried M. speciosa leaves belonging to three batches of different origin (from Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia) were extracted using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction SFE-CO(2), using methanol, ethanol, water and binary mixtures. The extracts were compared using an HPLC/ESI-MS analysis of mitragynine and four other related alkaloids which were present in the alkaloid fraction. The extraction technique influences both the raw product yield and the relative alkaloid content of M. speciosa leaves. Of the several methods tested, MAE in a closed vessel at 110 °C (60 W, methanol/water 1:1) gave the highest alkaloid fraction amount, while UAE with an immersion horn at 25 °C (21.4 kHz, 50 W, methanol) showed the best yield for mitragynine. This work may prove to be a useful contribution to forensic, toxicological and pharmacognosy studies. Although the potential applications of M. speciosa alkaloids clearly need further investigation, these results may facilitate the scaling-up of their extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orio
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università di Torino, Via P Giuria 9, 10235 Torino, Italy
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Li M, Hou XF, Zhang J, Wang SC, Fu Q, He LC. Applications of HPLC/MS in the analysis of traditional Chinese medicines. J Pharm Anal 2012; 1:81-91. [PMID: 29403684 PMCID: PMC5760786 DOI: 10.1016/s2095-1779(11)70015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 05/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In China, traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been used in clinical applications for thousands of years. The successful hyphenation of high-Performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) has been applied widely in TCMs and biological samples analysis. Undoubtedly, HPLC/MS technique has facilitated the understanding of the treatment mechanism of TCMs. We reviewed more than 350 published papers within the last 5 years on HPLC/MS in the analysis of TCMs. The present review focused on the applications of HPLC/MS in the component analysis, metabolites analysis, and pharmacokinetics of TCMs etc. 50% of the literature is related to the component analysis of TCMs, which show that this field is the most populär type of research. In the metabolites analysis, HPLC coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry has been demonstrated to be the powerful tool for the characterization of structural features and fragmentation behavior patterns. This paper presented a brief overview of the applications of HPLC/MS in the analysis of TCMs. HPLC/MS in the fingerprint analysis is reviewed elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Li
- School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Xiao-Fang Hou
- School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Si-Cen Wang
- School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Qiang Fu
- School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Lang-Chong He
- School of Medicine, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
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Vuppala PK, Boddu SP, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Avery BA. Simple, Sensitive, High-Throughput Method for the Quantification of Mitragynine in Rat Plasma Using UPLC-MS and Its Application to an Intravenous Pharmacokinetic Study. Chromatographia 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-011-2128-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Niessen WMA. Fragmentation of toxicologically relevant drugs in positive-ion liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2011; 30:626-663. [PMID: 21294151 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2010] [Revised: 01/05/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The identification of drugs and related compounds by LC-MS-MS is an important analytical challenge in several application areas, including clinical and forensic toxicology, doping control analysis, and environmental analysis. Although target-compound based analytical strategies are most frequently applied, at some point the information content of the MS-MS spectra becomes relevant. In this article, the positive-ion MS-MS spectra of a wide variety of drugs and related substances are discussed. Starting point was an MS-MS mass spectral library of toxicologically relevant compounds, available on the internet. The positive-ion MS-MS spectra of ∼570 compounds were interpreted by chemical and therapeutic class, thus involving a wide variety of drug compound classes, such benzodiazepines, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, phenothiazines, dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, diuretics, local anesthetics, vasodilators, as well as various subclasses of anti-diabetic, antidepressant, analgesic, and antihistaminic drugs. In addition, the scientific literature was searched for available MS-MS data of these compound classes and the interpretation thereof. The results of this elaborate study are presented in this article. For each individual compound class, the emphasis is on class-specific fragmentation, as discussing fragmentation of all individual compounds would take far too much space. The recognition of class-specific fragmentation may be quite informative in determining the compound class of a specific unknown, which may further help in the identification. In addition, knowledge on (class-specific) fragmentation may further help in the optimization of the selectivity in targeted analytical approaches of compounds of one particular class.
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloids mitraciliatine and isopaynantheine, diastereomers of the main alkaloids mitragynine and paynantheine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:1049-55. [PMID: 21450536 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), native in Southeast Asia, is increasingly misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During metabolism studies on the Kratom alkaloids mitragynine, its diastereomers speciogynine and speciociliatine as well as paynantheine in rats and humans, further isomeric compounds were detected in Kratom users' urine. The question arose whether these compounds were formed from the low abundant, isomeric alkaloids mitraciliatine (MC) and isopaynantheine (ISO-PAY). Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry their phase I and II metabolites in rat urine after administration of pure MC or ISO-PAY, to confirm their formation in humans, and finally to confirm whether the above-mentioned isomeric compounds in human urine represent MC and ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The metabolic pathways of both alkaloids in rats were found to be comparable to those of their corresponding diastereomers. In the human urines tested, not all metabolites found in rats could be detected because of the much lower amounts of MC and ISO-PAY in Kratom. However, all the above-mentioned so far unknown isomeric compounds could be identified in the human urine samples as MC, ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The used LC separation was also suitable for the differentiation of all other Kratom alkaloids and their metabolites in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Monitoring of kratom or Krypton intake in urine using GC-MS in clinical and forensic toxicology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 400:127-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4464-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 11/16/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Nelsen JL, Lapoint J, Hodgman MJ, Aldous KM. Seizure and coma following Kratom (Mitragynina speciosa Korth) exposure. J Med Toxicol 2010; 6:424-6. [PMID: 20411370 PMCID: PMC3550469 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-010-0079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Reports of toxicity secondary to Kratom are rare and lack of diagnostic testing in human specimens has prevented confirmatory explanation of observed clinical effects. We present a novel case of serious human toxicity following Kratom use confirmed via quantitative analysis of urine by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. A 64 year-old male was witnessed to have a seizure at home following kratom consumption. Upon arrival to the emergency department (ED), the patient was unresponsive. While in the ED, the patient sustained a second seizure. He was intubated to protect his airway. The remainder of his hospital course was uneventful. A urine specimen was collected shortly after admission and sent for analysis. The mitragynine concentration in the urine was 167 ± 15 ng/ml. We report a rare case of Kratom toxicity characterized by a seizure and coma confirmed by urinary analysis of mitragynine by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The proposed mechanism for this reaction is unclear but suggested mechanisms include adenosine binding or stimulation of adrenergic and/or serotonergic receptors similar to tramadol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Nelsen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Upstate New York Poison Center, 250 Harrison Street, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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Arndt T, Claussen U, Güssregen B, Schröfel S, Stürzer B, Werle A, Wolf G. Kratom alkaloids and O-desmethyltramadol in urine of a "Krypton" herbal mixture consumer. Forensic Sci Int 2010; 208:47-52. [PMID: 21112167 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
AIM A drug and alcohol withdrawal rehabilitation centre requested an analysis for "Krypton" in urine of a former opiate-addictive woman. She showed an altered clinical picture and behaviour with miosis, itchiness, agitation, and moderate euphoria after 3 months of until than successful treatment. Literature search revealed that "Krypton" is said to contain "Kratom" (leaves of Mitragyna speciosa), but could also contain O-desmethyltramadol (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction thematic paper "Spice"). METHODS Immunological drug screenings were done with test strips (nal von minden, Regensburg, Germany) and with cloned enzyme donor immunoassay (Microgenics, Passau, Germany). "Kratom" alkaloids and tramadol (metabolites) were analyzed by LC-MS/MS (ThermoFisher Scientific Quantum Ultra Triple Quadrupole mass spectrometer). RESULTS Immunoassays were negative for amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, benzoylecgonine, buprenorphine, ethylglucuronide, methadone (metabolite), opiates, oxycodone, and THC-COOH, and test strips were negative for tramadol and its metabolites (cut-off 10 mg/L for O-desmethyltramadol). LC-MS/MS detected the "Kratom" alkaloids mitragynine, speciociliatine, speciogynine, mitraciliatine, and paynantheine and approximately 9mg/L O-desmethyltramadol, but no tramadol and N-desmethyltramadol. DISCUSSION The detection of M. speciosa alkaloids is a proof of "Kratom" abuse. Confronted with the analysis data, the patient admitted to have consumed 3-4 infusions of "Krypton". The origin of the O-desmethyltramadol is unclear. Tramadol abuse is unlikely since tramadol and N-desmethyltramadol (physiologically occurring in urine after tramadol intake) were not detectable. Consumption of a "Krypton" product spiked with O-desmethyltramadol could explain our findings and the patient's clinical picture. This would be in agreement with a most recent report about spiking apparently natural herbal mixtures with the synthetic opioid O-desmethyltramadol. CONCLUSION Analysis of "Kratom" abuse should not be restricted to M. speciosa alkaloids, but should also consider synthetic drugs which could be added to the herbal mixtures. Mass spectrometry based drug screenings will gain importance to keep pace with the dynamic drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Arndt
- Bioscientia, Institut für Medizinische Diagnostik GmbH, Ingelheim, Germany.
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Hubert C, Houari S, Lecomte F, Houbart V, De Bleye C, Fillet M, Piel G, Rozet E, Hubert P. Development and validation of a sensitive solid phase extraction/hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry method for the accurate determination of glucosamine in dog plasma. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:3275-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Revised: 12/02/2009] [Accepted: 01/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Jian W, Edom RW, Xu Y, Weng N. Recent advances in application of hydrophilic interaction chromatography for quantitative bioanalysis. J Sep Sci 2010; 33:681-97. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200900692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Nováková L, Vlčková H. A review of current trends and advances in modern bio-analytical methods: Chromatography and sample preparation. Anal Chim Acta 2009; 656:8-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 353] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2009] [Revised: 09/29/2009] [Accepted: 10/01/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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