The development of an optimized sample preparation for trace level detection of 17α-ethinylestradiol and estrone in whole fish tissue

Simultaneous determination of 31 endocrine disrupting chemicals in fish plasma by solid phase extraction coupled with ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Solid phase extraction combined with ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed for the simultaneous determination of 31 endocrine disrupting chemicals in fish plasma. The strong anion exchange/primary-secondary amine cartridge and the mixed cation exchange cartridge were used in tandem instead of using a single mixed cation exchange cartridge for sample purification. Suitable eluents were selected for each of the two cartridges: 4.5% ammonia/acetonitrile solution for cartridges in tandem and acetone:n-hexane (V:V = 3:7) for the strong anion exchange/primary-secondary amine cartridge alone. With this optimized Solid phase extraction method, the recoveries of 31 endocrine disrupting chemicals were between 43.0% and 131.3%, the method detection limits were 0.45 to 1.35 ng/mL, and the limits of quantitation were 1.50 to 4.50 ng/mL. The innovative pretreatment method that connects two cartridges in tandem is well positioned to mitigate the matrix effects of fish plasma, thereby improving the accuracy of multiclass endocrine disrupting chemicals determination. The significance of this method is to facilitate the application of the fish plasma model for the environmental risk assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Synthetic estrogen bioaccumulates and changes the behavior and biochemical biomarkers in adult zebrafish

Estrogen is considered to be an endocrine disrupter and is becoming increasingly more prevalent in the daily life of humans. In some cases, estrogen is not fully metabolized by organisms and may be excreted in either its original form or in organic complex forms, into water residue systems reaching concentrations of 0.05 ng.L^-1 to 75 ng.L^-1. However, estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), which is used in oral contraceptives, is very difficult to remove from water. Here, we evaluated whether the synthetic hormone, EE2, affects the nervous system and the behavior of adult zebrafish. We established a range of concentrations (0.05, 0.5, 5, 50, and 75 ng.L^-1), in addition to the control, to evaluate the effect of this compound and its bioaccumulation in zebrafish tissues. Here we show that EE2 bioaccumulates in fish and can change its behavior with an increased time in the upper zone (novel tank test) and far from the shoal segment (social preference test), demonstrating a clear anxiolytic pattern. The anxiolytic effect of EE2 can be harmful as it can affect the stress response of the species. The results presented herein reinforce the idea that the presence of EE2 in environmental water can be dangerous for non-target animals.

Analysis of pharmaceuticals in fish using ultrasound extraction and dispersive spe clean-up on que Z-Sep/C18 followed by LC-QToF-MS detection

The presence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in aquatic biota has been received much less attention than their presence in surface or waste water, and it was not until the mid-2000s, this gap started to be addressed. Here, we present SQUEEZe (Solid-liQuid Ultrasound Extraction with QuE Z-Sep/C18 as dispersive clean-up): a fast method for analysis of the trace 47 PhACs in fish muscle. Compared to our previously reported method [1], it offers alternatives with improvements in recoveries, number of analytes, sample volume and solvent used. The key aspects of this method are:•The ultrasound extraction was performed with acetonitrile/isopropanol 0.1% V/V formic acid. A clean-up step using QuE Z-Sep/C18 sorbents was employed to reduce lipid content of the extracts and further matrix effects in the detection of the analytes.•A HPLC separation with a Kinetex EVO C18 packed column in 11 min was optimized. MS and MS/MS data were collected using SWATH acquisition on the SCIEX X500R QTOF in (+)-ESI mode.•The method validated at 3 different concentrations levels: 5, 25 and 50 ng/g fish. It presented good intraday/interday reproducibility and absolute recoveries ≥ 60% for majority of analytes in composite homogenate muscle matrix of Squalius cephalus.•10 out 47 compounds were detected in fish samples.

An In Vitro Comparison of Estrogenic Equivalents Per Serving Size of Some Common Foods

The public assumes that some foods, such as milk and ground beef from cattle receiving steroidal implants, are associated with estrogenic hormones, while other foods are presumed "safe" or nonestrogenic. Here, we investigate these assumptions by assessing the relative estrogenic activity of a serving size of four foods: skim milk (8 oz), rice (48 g dry wt) in cooking bag, ground beef patties from steers raised with or without hormone implantation (quarter lb each, 114 g), and tofu burgers (isocaloric to beef burger, 198 g), using an in vitro assay (E-Screen). Mean picogram (pg) estradiol equivalents (E2Eqs) on a serving basis were as follows: skim milk 120; rice 400; rice prepared in cooking bag 370; rice boiling bag alone 4 pg per bag, ground beef burger (obtained from the tissue of cattle that had received no hormone implants) 389, beef burger (obtained from cattle that had received hormone implant) 384, and tofu burger 1,020,000. Rice E2Eqs were highly variable, but the plastic cooking bags provided by the manufacturer added negligible E2Eqs. The source of estrogenic activity in rice may have been due to contamination with the mycotoxin zearalenone. The E-Screen E2Eqs of tofu burger extracts agreed with those predicted based on chemical concentrations of the most estrogenic component times their E2Eq factor. While a tofu burger contained around three times the estrogenic activity of a daily dose of estrogen replacement therapy (125 mg, Premarin®, 303,000 pg); the other foods--a quarter pound ground beef burger at approximately equal calorie count, a serving of milk, or rice, were all at least 750-fold less estrogenic. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: When consuming the recognized serving size of a food, how much estrogenic activity can we expect? While the public assumes that some foods, such as milk and ground beef from cattle receiving steroidal implants, are associated with estrogenic hormones, other foods are presumed "safe" or nonestrogenic. Using one assay, a tofu burger contained three times the estrogenic activity of a dose of hormone replacement therapy commonly prescribed for women after hysterectomy or menopause (Premarin®); while other foods--a quarter pound ground beef burger at approximately equal calorie count, a serving of milk, or rice, were all at least 750-fold less estrogenic.

Development and validation of an analytical method for determination of pharmaceuticals in fish muscle based on QuEChERS extraction and SWATH acquisition using LC-QTOF-MS/MS system

This study aimed at developing an analytical method for the extraction and quantification of 21 pharmaceutical actives compounds (PhACs) present in fish muscle. Using Norwegian Atlantic salmon as matrix, two extraction methods for PhACs were tested: ultrasound extraction (USE) using methanol (MeOH), acetonitrile (MeCN) or a mixture of MeCN:MeOH (1:1, v/v) as extracting solvents, and QuEChERS method using three different extraction salts. After selecting QuEChERS Original as extracting method of the analytes, three different clean-up methods were evaluated with respect to their efficiency to remove coextracted fat and lipids such as Enhanced Matrix Removal (EMR) and HLB prime. The dispersive-SPE EMR yielded the best recoveries for 21 of 27 analytes. PhACs were quantified by UPLC-MS/MS using SWATH acquisition mode. The method was validated in terms of recoveries, accuracy, linearity, precision, matrix effects at three levels of concentration: 25, 200 and 500 ng g^-1 dw of fish muscle. For the majority of the analytes the recoveries were over 70%. Finally, the validated method was applied to natural riverine fish from the Evrotas river (Greece) and the Adige river (Italy) with positive findings for acetaminophen, propranolol, and venlafaxine reaching concentrations as high as 80 ng g^-1 of muscle.

Multiresidue analytical method for the determination of 41 multiclass organic pollutants in mussel and fish tissues and biofluids by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry

In this work, the full optimisation and validation procedure to analyse a wide set of emerging organic contaminants in biotissues (mussel and fish muscle, liver, gills and brain) and biofluids (fish plasma and bile) is described. The target families include artificial sweeteners, industrial products, hormones, pharmaceutical and personal care products, pesticides and phytoestrogens. Different clean-up strategies (hydrophilic-lipophilic-balanced (HLB) solid-phase extraction, Florisil solid-phase extraction and liquid-liquid extraction followed by HLB solid-phase extraction and microextraction based on polyethersulfone polymer) were evaluated for the clean-up of focused ultrasonic solid-liquid extraction (FUSLE) extracts before the analysis by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ-MS/MS). The methods afforded satisfactory apparent recovery values (71-126%) using isotopically labelled analytes and matrix-matched calibration approach, regardless of the matrix. Method detection limits in the range of 4-48 ng/g and 0.3-111 ng/L were obtained for biotissues and biofluids, respectively. The developed method was applied to determine the uptake and tissue distribution in juvenile gilt-head bream (Sparus aurata) during 7 days in seawater, and unexpectedly, perfluoro-1-butanesulfonate tended to accumulate in liver and, to a lesser extent, in muscle and gills. Furthermore, real mussel samples collected in the Basque coast were also analysed and the presence of the highly consumed valsartan (7 ng/g) and telmisartan (6.8 ng/g) compounds in bivalves is reported for the first time here. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Derivatization of steroids in biological samples for GC–MS and LC–MS analyses

The determination of steroids in biological samples is essential in different areas of knowledge. MS combined with either GC or LC is considered the best analytical technique for specific and sensitive determinations. However, due to the physicochemical properties of some steroids, and the low concentrations found in biological samples, the formation of a derivative prior to their analysis is required. In GC–MS determinations, derivatization is needed for generating volatile and thermally stable compounds. The improvement in terms of stability and chromatographic retention are the main reasons for selecting the derivatization agent. On the other hand, derivatization is not compulsory in LC–MS analyses and the derivatization is typically used for improving the ionization and therefore the overall sensitivity achieved.

Effects of various factors of ultrasonic treatment on the extraction recovery of drugs from fish tissues

In the present research, a combined extraction method of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) in conjunction with solid phase extraction (SPE) was applied to isolation and enrichment of selected drugs (metoprolol, ticlopidine, propranolol, carbamazepine, naproxen, acenocumarol, diclofenac, ibuprofen) from fish tissues. The extracted analytes were separated and determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with UV detection (UHPLC-UV) technique. The selectivity of the developed UHPLC-UV method was confirmed by comparison with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) analysis. The important parameters, such as composition of type and pH of extraction solvent, solid/liquid rate volume of extraction solvent and number of extraction cycles were studied. The ultrasonic parameters, such as time, power and temperature of the process were optimized by using a half-fraction factorial central composite design (CCD). The mixture of 10 mL of methanol and 7 mL of water (pH 2.2) (three times) was chosen for the extraction of selected drug from fish tissues. The results showed that the highest recoveries of analytes were obtained with an extraction temperature of 40°C, ultrasonic power of 300 W, extraction time of 30 min. Under the optimal conditions, the linearity of method was 0.12-5.00 μg/g. The determination coefficients (R(2)) were from 0.979 to 0.998. The limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) for the extracted compounds were 0.04-0.17 μg/g and 0.12-0.50 μg/g, respectively. The recoveries were between 85.5% and 115.8%.

Consumption of ground beef obtained from cattle that had received steroidal growth promotants does not trigger early onset of estrus in prepubertal pigs

BACKGROUND

The earlier onset of puberty seen in young American girls has led researchers to question if a causal relation exists between dietary sources of estrogenic compounds and precocious puberty.

OBJECTIVE

Using the prepubertal gilt (young female pig) as an animal model, our hypothesis is that feeding beef obtained from cattle receiving growth-promoting steroidal implants postweaning does not alter the onset of puberty or the peripubertal body composition of gilts compared with contemporaries fed nonimplanted "natural" beef or a common meat alternative, tofu.

METHOD

The base diet was formulated using canola meal replacing soybean meal to reduce diet estrogenicity. Feed intake was monitored and controlled to ensure similar intake. Gilts were assigned to treatments based on dam and initial body weight (mean: 24.5 ± 3.20 kg) at 61 d of age. The negative control base diet was supplemented with daily feedings of a cooked patty from nonimplanted steers (natural), from steers that had been treated with growth promotants [100 mg trenbolone acetate and 14 mg estradiol (E2) benzoate; implanted], or cooked tofu patty.

RESULTS

E2 equivalents (nanogram per kilogram, as fed as analyzed by E-Screen) of the tofu (a soy-based product) supplement were ∼570 times the natural and ∼170 times the implanted supplements. There were no observed differences across treatments in live weight gain (P = 0.90), longissimus muscle area developed at the 10th and 11th rib interface (P = 0.46), and subcutaneous fat deposition (P = 0.41) at the same location over time or in the number of days to reach estrus (P = 0.55).

CONCLUSIONS

Consumption of beef from growth implanted or natural steers or tofu at levels similar to those typically consumed by humans did not impact growth or onset of estrus in these prepubertal gilts.

MicroQuEChERS-nanoliquid chromatography-nanospray-tandem mass spectrometry for the detection and quantification of trace pharmaceuticals in benthic invertebrates

Due to industrialization and the use of chemical products in everyday life, various types of drugs and pesticides are present in our environment, which threaten and cause negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems. The consequences of these pollutants are gradually becoming visible. Recent evidence confirms that long term exposure to environmental pharmaceutical concentrations can induce adverse effects in aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates such as reproductive impairments and collapse wild populations. Consequently, one of the challenges of environmental science is to evaluate the associated risks. In this context, a new methodology has been developed using nano-LC-nano-ESI MS/MS to quantify traces of two pharmaceuticals (a neuropharmaceutical drug, fluoxetine, and an anticonvulsant drug, carbamazepine) in two molluscs, Potamopyrgus antipodarum and Valvata piscinalis, which are both prosobranch gastropods. A simple and quick extraction method was developed based on a modified and miniaturized version of the QuEChERS method. The procedure involves the extraction of approximately 10 mg of wet mollusc tissue by 500 µL of a mixture of acetonitrile/water/hexane (50/20/30) and 100 mg of buffer salt. Thus, the extraction step was carried out on an individual scale. The sensitivity of this method allowed for the detection of levels as low as 18 ng/g and 128 ng/g for carbamazepine and fluoxetine, respectively, with recoveries of greater than 85% for the two targeted compounds. This method was then applied to both gastropod species exposed to fluoxetine under laboratory conditions. The results provide evidence of bioaccumulation in both P. antipodarum and V. piscinalis and reveal the inter-species differences.

Effects of naphthenic acid exposure on development and liver metabolic processes in anuran tadpoles

Naphthenic acids (NA) are used in a variety of commercial and industrial applications, and are primary toxic components of oil sands wastewater. We investigated developmental and metabolic responses of tadpoles exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of a commercial NA blend throughout development. We exposed Lithobates pipiens tadpoles to 1 and 2 mg/L NA for 75 days and monitored growth and development, condition factor, gonad and liver sizes, and levels of liver glucose, glycogen, lipids and cholesterol following exposure. NA decreased growth and development, significantly reduced glycogen stores and increased triglycerides, indicating disruption to processes associated with energy metabolism and hepatic glycolysis. Effects on liver function may explain reduced growth and delayed development observed in this and previous studies. Our data highlight the need for greater understanding of the mechanisms leading to hepatotoxicity in NA-exposed organisms, and indicate that strict guidelines may be needed for the release of NA into aquatic environments.

Estrogen-like effects in male goldfish co-exposed to fluoxetine and 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol

The antidepressant fluoxetine (FLX) and the synthetic estrogen, 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2), are present in municipal sewage discharges. To better understand possible interactions between them, male goldfish were exposed to an ethanol control or to nominal concentrations of FLX (0.54 μg/L) and EE2 (5 ng/L) alone and in combination for 14 days. Real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to assess effects on hepatic gene expression and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to analyze the plasma proteome. The results showed an increase in estrogen receptor alpha (esr1) and vitellogenin (vtg) gene expression by 1.9-2.4-fold in the FLX and EE2 groups, but this did not reach statistical significance. In contrast, co-exposure up regulated esr1 and vtg gene expression by 5.5- and 5.3-fold, respectively. Fluoxetine and EE2 alone did not affect estrogen receptor beta (esr2), but the co-exposure down regulated esr2 expression by 50%. There was a significant increase in the number of plasma proteins that were related to endocrine system disorders in the FLX and FLX plus EE2 groups. The level of VTG protein was increased in the plasma from goldfish exposed to EE2, FLX, and FLX plus EE2. Our study demonstrates that low concentrations of FLX and EE2 in a simple mixture produce strong estrogen-like effects in the male goldfish.

Dynamics of uptake and elimination of 17α-ethinylestradiol in male goldfish (Carassius auratus)

We used male goldfish (Carassius auratus) as a model species to determine the uptake, elimination, and bioaccumulation of 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2). Goldfish were exposed to EE2 via two different routes: water (135ng/L±12.8 standard deviation) for 72h, and food (231ng/g±42 SD) for 120h. We observed a rapid uptake of EE2 in goldfish, reaching 8.4ng/g±1.2 dry weight (dw) after the first hour of exposure with an uptake rate coefficient (k1) of 45h(-1). The elimination rate coefficient (k2) was determined by a depuration experiment to be 0.0786h(-1). In the feeding experiment, EE2 concentrations increased rapidly, reaching an average of 1.4ng/g after 3h following the first dietary exposure with an estimated absorption efficiency (α) of 0.106. An average of 2.66ng/g±0.87 (n=8) was determined in the 24-72h samples, whereas EE2 concentrations in fish fell below our method detection limits (0.67ng/g) for all samples after 72h, suggesting efficient elimination over time. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) for EE2 reached a maximum of 377, similar to BCFs measured for other pharmaceuticals like fluoxetine and sertraline. Our kinetic data were also used to model various scenarios of EE2 uptake in the aquatic environment. To our knowledge, this is the first report to describe aqueous and dietary EE2 uptake and elimination in fish, as well as providing important data to model EE2 kinetics in fish.

Analysis of multi-class pharmaceuticals in fish tissues by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

A new sensitive method based on pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and purification by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) prior to ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed for the determination in fish homogenate, liver and muscle of twenty pharmaceuticals compounds and metabolites from seven commonly used therapeutic families. An extensive matrix effect evaluation was performed in order to select the best approach when analyzing such complex matrices. Limits of detection (MDLs) for the target compounds were in the range of 0.03-0.50ng/g for fish homogenate, 0.01-0.42ng/g for fish muscle, and 0.08-0.98ng/g for fish liver. The method was applied to fish tissues of eleven fish species from four heavily impacted Mediterranean rivers. Nine compounds from five therapeutic families were measured at concentrations higher than MDLs. Highest levels were found in trout liver, with a maximum concentration of 18ng/g for carbamazepine, whereas the most ubiquitous compound was diclofenac.

Pharmaceuticals in biota in the aquatic environment: analytical methods and environmental implications

The presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is an ever-increasing issue of concern as they are specifically designed to target specific metabolic and molecular pathways in organisms, and they may have the potential for unintended effects on nontarget species. Information on the presence of pharmaceuticals in biota is still scarce, but the scientific literature on the subject has established the possibility of bioaccumulation in exposed aquatic organisms through other environmental compartments. However, few studies have correlated both bioaccumulation of pharmaceutical compounds and the consequent effects. Analytical methodology to detect pharmaceuticals at trace quantities in biota has advanced significantly in the last few years. Nonetheless, there are still unresolved analytical challenges associated with the complexity of biological matrices, which require exhaustive extraction and purification steps, and highly sensitive and selective detection techniques. This review presents the trends in the analysis of pharmaceuticals in aquatic organisms in the last decade, recent data about the occurrence of these compounds in natural biota, and the environmental implications that chronic exposure could have on aquatic wildlife.