Characterization of oxygenated metabolites of ginsenoside Rg 1 in plasma and urine of rat

Existing Forms of Notoginsenoside R1 in Rats and Their Potential Bioactivities

Notoginsenoside R1 (NG-R1) is a primary active constituent in Panax notoginseng, a medicinal and edible plant. It is a saponin with protopanaxatriol (PPT) as its aglycone. UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS was used to clarify the existing forms of NG-R1 and their distributions in rats. The nomenclature of the ESI MS fragmentation pathway and ions of PPT was proposed for the first time. Totally, 105 metabolites with 89 new metabolites were identified. In terms of their LC-MS data, 7 were accurately identified by comparison with reference compounds, and 41 were clearly identified. Polyhydroxylation, pentosylation, acetylation, glucuronidation, and amino acid conjugation are new metabolic reactions of NG-R1. In total, 69, 48, 47, 43, 24, 15, and 7 metabolites were detected in the large intestine, stomach, small intestine, liver, lungs, kidneys, and heart, respectively. Then, 48 metabolites were predicted to be effective by PharmMapper, and their mechanisms of action on three diseases were predicted by network pharmacology. Finally, the antitumor effects on cell proliferation and the anti-inflammatory effects of the eight compounds were verified by cellular experiments. These results help further elucidate the in vivo existing forms of dammarane-type triterpenoids and form the basis for discovering their effective forms in the future.

A review for discovering bioactive minor saponins and biotransformative metabolites in Panax quinquefolius L

Panax quinquefolius L. has attracted extensive attention worldwide because of its prominent pharmacological properties on type 2 diabetes, cancers, central nervous system, and cardiovascular diseases. Ginsenosides are active phytochemicals of P. quinquefolius, which can be classified as propanaxdiol (PPD)-type, propanaxtriol (PPT)-type, oleanane-type, and ocotillol-type oligo-glycosides depending on the skeleton of aglycone. Recently, advanced analytical and isolated methods including ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem with mass detector, preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, and high speed counter-current chromatography have been used to isolate and identify minor components in P. quinquefolius, which accelerates the clarification of the material basis. However, the poor bioavailability and undetermined bio-metabolism of most saponins have greatly hindered both the development of medicines and the identification of their real active constituents. Thus, it is essential to consider the bio-metabolism of constituents before and after absorption. In this review, we described the structures of minor ginsenosides in P. quinquefolius, including naturally occurring protype compounds and their in vivo metabolites. The preclinical and clinical pharmacological studies of the ginsenosides in the past few years were also summarized. The review will promote the reacquaint of minor saponins on the growing appreciation of their biological role in P. quinquefolius.

Elucidating the Synergistic Effect of Multiple Chinese Herbal Prescriptions in the Treatment of Post-stroke Neurological Damage

Background: Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely used in the treatment of human diseases. However, the synergistic effects of multiple TCM prescriptions in the treatment of stroke have not been thoroughly studied.

Objective of the study: This study aimed to reveal the mechanisms underlying the synergistic effects of these TCM prescriptions in stroke treatment and identify the active compounds.

Methods: Herbs and compounds in the Di-Tan Decoction (DTD), Xue-Fu Zhu-Yu Decoction (XFZYD), and Xiao-Xu-Ming Decoction (XXMD) were acquired from the TCMSP database. SEA, HitPick, and TargetNet web servers were used for target prediction. The compound-target (C-T) networks of three prescriptions were constructed and then filtered using the collaborative filtering algorithm. We combined KEGG enrichment analysis, molecular docking, and network analysis approaches to identify active compounds, followed by verification of these compounds with an oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) model.

Results: The filtered DTD network contained 39 compounds and 534 targets, the filtered XFZYD network contained 40 compounds and 508 targets, and the filtered XXMD network contained 55 compounds and 599 targets. The filtered C-T networks retained approximately 80% of the biological functions of the original networks. Based on the enriched pathways, molecular docking, and network analysis results, we constructed a complex network containing 3 prescriptions, 14 botanical drugs, 26 compounds, 13 targets, and 5 pathways. By calculating the synergy score, we identified the top 5 candidate compounds. The experimental results showed that quercetin, baicalin, and ginsenoside Rg1 independently and synergistically increased cell viability.

Conclusion: By integrating pharmacological and chemoinformatic approaches, our study provides a new method for identifying the effective synergistic compounds of TCM prescriptions. The filtered compounds and their synergistic effects on stroke require further research.

Research progress on naturally-occurring and semi-synthetic ocotillol-type ginsenosides in the genus Panax L. (Araliaceae)

Ocotillol (OT)-type ginsenosides, one subtype of ginsenosides, consist of a dammarane skeleton and a tetrahydrofuran ring. Most naturally-occurring OT-type ginsenosides exist in Panax species, particularly in Panax quinquefolius, which may be attributed to the warm and humid climate of its native areas. Till now, merely 28 types of naturally-occurring OT-type ginsenosides have been isolated. In contrast, semi-synthesized OT-type ginsenosides are attracted considerable attentions. These ginsenosides can be obtained through oxidation and cyclization of side chains of dammarane-type ginsenosides, and other methods, which may change their physical and chemical properties and further improve their bioavailabilities. It is also notable that the pharmacological activities of ginsenosides are closely related to the stereoisomers caused by the configuration at C-20. Semi-synthesis of OT-type ginsenosides can facilitate our understanding of the biosynthesis, transformation and metabolism of OT-type ginsenosides in the body. This review will systematically summarize the research progress on naturally-occurring and semi-synthetic OT-type ginsenosides, which provides a theoretical basis for their bioactivity-guided research.

Targeting Sirtuin 1 signaling pathway by ginsenosides

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng is a kind of traditional Chinese herbal medicine, known as "king of herbs" and widely used in China, South Korea, and other Asian countries. Ginsenosides are one of active components of Panax ginseng Meyer, which have many pharmacological effects, such as enhancing memory, improving immunity and cardiovascular system, delaying aging, and preventing cancer.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to summarize the recent findings for ginsenosides targeting Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) signaling pathway for the prevention and treatment of a series of diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An up-to-August 2020 search was carried out in databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and classic books of traditional Chinese medicine using the keywords: "SIRT1", and/or paired with "ginseng", and "ginsenosides".

RESULTS

SIRT1 is a class-III histone deacetylase (HDAC), a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺)-dependent enzyme, which is deeply involved in a series of pathological processes. Based on specific intracellular localization, SIRT1 has various cytoplasmic and nuclear targets and plays a potential role in energy metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, tumorigenesis, and aging. Ginsenosides are generally classified into three groups and microbially transformed to final metabolites. Among of them, most ginsenosides have been reported as SIRT1 activators, especially those ginsenosides with two glucopyranosyl groups on the C-3 position. Importantly, many ginsenosides can be used to prevent and treat oxidative stress, inflammation, aging, tumorigenesis, depression, and others by targeting SIRT1 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper reviews recent evidences of ginsenosides targeting SIRT1 for the first time, which could provide new insights on the preclinical and clinical researches for ginsenosides against multiple disorders.

A Combined Phytochemistry and Network Pharmacology Approach to Reveal the Effective Substances and Mechanisms of Wei-Fu-Chun Tablet in the Treatment of Precancerous Lesions of Gastric Cancer

Wei-Fu-Chun (WFC) tablet is a commercial medicinal product approved by China Food and Drug Administration, which is made of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey., Citrus aurantium L., and Isodon amethystoides (Benth.). WFC has been popularly used for the treatment of precancerous lesions of gastric cancer (PLGC) in clinical practice. In this study, a UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS method in both positive and negative ion mode was employed to rapidly survey the major constituents of WFC. 178 compounds including diterpenoids, triterpenes, sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, saponins, phenylpropanoids, lignans, coumarins, organic acids, fatty acids, quinones, and sterols, were identified by comparing their retention times, accurate mass within 5 ppm error, and MS fragmentation ions. In addition, 77 absorbed parent molecules and nine metabolites in rat serum were rapidly characterized by UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS. The network pharmacology method was used to predict the active components, corresponding therapeutic targets, and related pathways of WFC in the treatment of PLGC. Based on the main compounds in WFC and their metabolites in rat plasma and existing databases, 13 active components, 48 therapeutic targets, and 61 pathways were found to treat PLGC. The results of PLGC experiment in rats showed that WFC could improve the weight of PLGC rats and the histopathological changes of gastric mucosa partly by inhibiting Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway to increase pepsin secretion. This study offers an applicable approach to identify chemical components, absorbed compounds, and metabolic compounds in WFC, and provides a method to explore bioactive ingredients and action mechanisms of WFC.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of saponins in the flower bud of Panax ginseng (Ginseng Flos) by UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS and UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS

INTRODUCTION

Ginseng Flos (GF), the flower bud of Panax ginseng, is a worthy functional food with medicinal potential. A few studies have focused on the comprehensive and systematic analysis of its major bioactive constituents.

OBJECTIVE

The aims are to develop the methods of ultra-fast liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole-time of flight tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS) and ultra-fast liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole-linear ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS) for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the saponins in GF.

METHODOLOGY

UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS and UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS were established for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the saponins in GF, separately.

RESULTS

Fifty-one saponins were identified in GF using UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS method; among them, 21 saponins were characterized by comparing with standards. Furthermore, 12 ginsenosides (ginsenoside Re, Rg₁ , Rf, 20(S)-Rg₂ , 20(R)-Rg₂ , Rb₁ , Rc, Ro, Rb₂ , F₁ , Rd, and F₂ ) were synchronously determined by UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS method after the extraction with 70% methanol. This UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS method showed good linearity (r >0.9991), the interday and intraday precision, repeatability and stability were all satisfied, the average recoveries of standard addition for the compounds were between 94.01% and 105.16%, and the relative standard deviations were less than 5%.

CONCLUSION

The results are available for the comprehensive quality control and assessment of GF and its relative products.

Immunomodulatory Effects of (24R)-Pseudo-Ginsenoside HQ and (24S)-Pseudo-Ginsenoside HQ on Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression and Their Anti-Tumor Effects Study

(24R)-pseudo-ginsenoside HQ (R-PHQ) and (24S)-pseudo-ginsenoside HQ (S-PHQ) are the main metabolites of (20S)-ginsenoside Rh₂ (Rh₂) in vivo. In this study, we found that Rh₂, R-PHQ, and S-PHQ upregulated the innate and adaptive immune response in cyclophosphamide (CTX) induced-immunocompromised mice as evidenced by the number of leukocytes, cellular immunity, and phagocytosis of macrophages. Spleen T-lymphocyte subpopulations and the serum cytokines level were also balanced in these immunosuppressed mice. Furthermore, co-administration with R-PHQ or S-PHQ did not compromise the antitumor activity of CTX in the hepatoma H22-bearing mice. Treatment with R-PHQ and S-PHQ clearly induced the apoptosis of tumor cells, significantly increased the expression of Bax, and remarkably inhibited the expression of Bcl-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in H22 tumor tissues. The anti-tumor activity of R-PHQ and S-PHQ could be related to the promotion of tumor apoptosis and inhibition of angiogenesis and may involve the caspase and VEGF signaling pathways. This study provides a theoretical basis for further study on R-PHQ and S-PHQ.

Study on the metabolites of betulinic acid in vivo and in vitro by ultra high performance liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Betulinic acid is a triterpenoid organic acid with remarkable antitumor properties and is naturally present in many fruits, condiments and traditional Chinese medicines. Currently, a strategy was developed for the identification of metabolites following the in vivo and in vitro biotransformation of Betulinic acid with rat intestinal bacteria utilizing ultra high performance liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry with polymeric solid-phase extraction. As a result, 46 metabolites were structurally characterized. The results demonstrated that Betulinic acid is universally metabolized in vivo and in vitro, and Betulinic acid could undergo general metabolic reactions, including oxidation, methylation, desaturation, loss of O and loss of CH₂ . Additionally, the main metabolic pathways in vivo and in vitro were determined by calculating the relative content of each metabolite. This is the first study of Betulinic acid metabolism in vivo, whose results provide novel and useful data for better understanding of the safety and efficacy of Betulinic acid.

Caspase-Mediated Anti-Apoptotic Effect of Ginsenoside Rg5, a Main Rare Ginsenoside, on Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Mice

Frequent overdose of acetaminophen (APAP) is one of the most common and important incentives of acute hepatotoxicity. Prior to this work, our research group confirmed that black ginseng (Panax ginseng, BG) showed powerful protective effects on APAP-induced ALI. However, it is not clear which kind of individual ginsenoside from BG plays such a liver protection effect. The objective of the current investigation was to evaluate whether ginsenoside Rg5 (G-Rg5) protected against APAP-induced hepatotoxicity and the involved action mechanisms. Mice were administrated with G-Rg5 at two dosages of 10 or 20 mg/kg for 7 consecutive days. After the last treatment, all of the animals that received a single intraperitoneal injection of APAP (250 mg/kg) showed severe liver toxicity after 24 h, and the liver protection effects of G-Rg5 were examined. The results clearly indicated that pretreatment with G-Rg5 remarkably inhibited the production of serum tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) compared with the APAP group. Meanwhile, G-Rg5 decreased the hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) content, the protein expression levels of 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in the liver tissues. G-Rg5 decreased APAP caused the hepatic overexpression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Furthermore, analysis of immunohistochemistry and Western blotting also indicated that G-Rg5 pretreatment inhibited activation of apoptotic pathways mainly via increasing the expression of Bcl-2 protein, decreasing the expression of Bax protein, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cytochrome c, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9. Liver histopathological observation provided further evidence that pretreatment with G-Rg5 could significantly inhibit hepatocyte necrosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, and apoptosis caused by APAP. In conclusion, the present study clearly demonstrates that G-Rg5 exerts a liver protection effect against APAP-induced acute hepatotoxicity mainly via a caspase-mediated anti-apoptotic effect.