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Zhao Z, Pu Q, Sun T, Huang Q, Tong L, Fan T, Kang J, Chen Y, Zhang Y. Determination of Pralsetinib in Human Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring by Ultra-performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2024; 24:867-877. [PMID: 38584556 DOI: 10.2174/0118715206290110240326071909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultra-performance Liquid Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) is widely used for concentration detection of many Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (TKIs), including afatinib, crizotinib, and osimertinib. In order to analyze whether pralsetinib takes effect in Rearranged during Transfection (RET)-positive patients with central nervous system metastasis, we aimed to develop a method for the detection of pralsetinib concentrations in human plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) by UPLC-MS/MS. METHODS The method was developed using the external standard method, and method validation included precision, accuracy, stability, extraction recovery, and matrix effect. Working solutions were all obtained based on stock solutions of pralsetinib of 1mg/mL. The plasma/CSF samples were precipitated by acetonitrile for protein precipitation and then separated on an ACQUITY UPLC HSS T3 column (2.1×100 mm, 1.8 μm) with a gradient elution using 0.1% formic acid (solution A) and acetonitrile (solution B) as mobile phases at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. The tandem mass spectrometry was performed by a triple quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometry system (QTRAPTM 6500+) with an electrospray ion (ESI) source and Analyst 1.7.2 data acquisition system. Data were collected in Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) and positive ionization mode. RESULTS A good linear relationship of pralsetinib in both plasma and CSF was successfully established, and the calibration ranges were found to be 1.0-64.0 μg/mL and 50.0ng/mL-12.8 μg/mL for pralsetinib in the plasma and CSF, respectively. Validation was performed, including calibration assessment, selectivity, precision, accuracy, matrix effect, extraction recovery, and stability, and all results have been found to be acceptable. The method has been successfully applied to pralsetinib concentration detection in a clinical sample, and the concentrations have been found to be 475 ng/mL and 61.55 μg/mL in the CSF and plasma, respectively. CONCLUSION We have developed a quick and effective method for concentration detection in both plasma and CSF, and it can be applied for drug monitoring in clinical practice. The method can also provide a reference for further optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zichen Zhao
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qianlun Pu
- Advanced Mass Spectrometry Center, Research Core Facility, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Tonglin Sun
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qian Huang
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Liping Tong
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Ting Fan
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jingyue Kang
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yuhong Chen
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Lung Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Retmana IA, Loos NHC, Schinkel AH, Beijnen JH, Sparidans RW. Validated LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of KRAS G12C inhibitor sotorasib and its major circulating metabolite (M24) in mouse matrices and its application in a mouse pharmacokinetic study. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 235:115612. [PMID: 37557065 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
We have successfully developed and validated a bioanalytical assay using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to simultaneously quantify the first approved KRASG12C inhibitor sotorasib and its major circulating metabolite (M24) in various mouse matrices. M24 was synthesized in-house via low-pH hydrolysis. We utilized a fast and efficient protein precipitation method in a 96-well plate format to extract both analytes from biological matrices. Erlotinib was selected as the internal standard in this assay. Gradient elution using methanol and 0.1 % formic acid in water (v/v) was applied on an Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column to separate all analytes. Sotorasib, M24, and erlotinib were detected with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer in positive electrospray ionization in multiple reaction monitoring mode. During the validation and sample quantification, a linear calibration range was observed for both sotorasib and M24 in a range of 4 - 4000 nM and 1 - 1000 nM, respectively. The %bias and %CV (both intra- and inter-day) for all tested levels in all investigated matrices were lower than 15 % as required by the guidelines. Sotorasib had a rather short room temperature stability in mouse plasma for up to 8 h compared to M24 which was stable up to 16 h at room temperature. This method has been successfully applied to measure sotorasib and M24 in several mouse matrices from three different mouse strains. We can conclude that the plasma exposure of sotorasib in mice is limited via human CYP3A4- and mouse Cyp3a-mediated metabolism of sotorasib into M24.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene A Retmana
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Nancy H C Loos
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Alfred H Schinkel
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jos H Beijnen
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Rolf W Sparidans
- Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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Zeng C, Zhang L, Luo C, Yang C, Huang X, Fan L, Li J, Chen F, Luo Z. A stratification model of hepatocellular carcinoma based on expression profiles of cells in the tumor microenvironment. BMC Cancer 2022; 22:613. [PMID: 35659630 PMCID: PMC9167552 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-022-09647-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A malignancy of the liver, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the most common and second-leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. A reliable prognosis model for guidance in choosing HCC therapies has yet to be established. Methods A consensus clustering approach was used to determine the number of immune clusters in the Cancer Genome Atlas and Liver Cancer-RIKEN, JP (LIRI_JP) datasets. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) among these groups were identified based on RNA sequencing data. Then, to identify hub genes among signature genes, a co-expression network was constructed. The prognostic value and clinical characteristics of the immune clusters were also explored. Finally, the potential key genes for the immune clusters were determined. Results After conducting survival and correlation analyses of the DEGs, three immune clusters (C1, C2, and C3) were identified. Patients in C2 showed the longest survival time with the greatest abundance of tumor microenvironment (TME) cell populations. MGene mutations in Ffibroblast growth factor-19 (FGF19) and catenin (cadherin-associated protein),β1(CTNNB1) were mostly observed in C2 and C3, respectively. The signature genes of C1, C2, and C3 were primarily enriched in 5, 23, and 26 pathways, respectively. Conclusions This study sought to construct an immune-stratification model for the prognosis of HCC by dividing the expression profiles of patients from public datasets into three clusters and discovering the unique molecular characteristics of each. This stratification model provides insights into the immune and clinical characteristics of HCC subtypes, which is beneficial for the prognosis of HCC. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-022-09647-5.
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Zhang X, Zhang X, Han R, Wang Z, Yang Q, Huang Y, Yan Y. BLU-554, A selective inhibitor of FGFR4, exhibits anti-tumour activity against gastric cancer in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2022; 595:22-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.01.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Retmana IA, Loos NHC, Schinkel AH, Beijnen JH, Sparidans RW. Quantification of KRAS inhibitor sotorasib in mouse plasma and tissue homogenates using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1174:122718. [PMID: 33957355 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Sotorasib is a KRAS inhibitor with promising anticancer activity in phase I clinical studies. This compound is currently under further clinical evaluation as monotherapy and combination therapy against solid tumors. In this study, a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method to quantify sotorasib in mouse plasma and eight tissue-related matrices (brain, liver, spleen, kidney, small intestine, small intestine content, lung, and testis homogenates) was developed and validated. Protein precipitation using acetonitrile was utilized in 96-well format to extract sotorasib and erlotinib (internal standard) from mouse plasma and tissue homogenates. Separation of the analytes was performed on an Acquity UPLC® BEH C18 column by gradient elution of methanol and 0.1% formic acid in water at a flow rate of 0.6 ml/min. Sotorasib was detected by a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer with positive electrospray ionization in selected reaction monitoring mode. A linear calibration range of 2-2,000 ng/ml of sotorasib was achieved during the validation. Accuracy values were in the range of 90.7-111.4%, and precision values (intra- and interday) were between 1.7% and 9.2% for all tested levels in all investigated matrices. The method was successfully applied to investigate the plasma pharmacokinetics and tissue accumulation of sotorasib in female wild-type mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene A Retmana
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Nancy H C Loos
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Alfred H Schinkel
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Jos H Beijnen
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Rolf W Sparidans
- Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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Retmana IA, Beijnen JH, Sparidans RW. Chromatographic bioanalytical assays for targeted covalent kinase inhibitors and their metabolites. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1162:122466. [PMID: 33316750 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Deriving from targeted kinase inhibitors (TKIs), targeted covalent kinase inhibitors (TCKIs) are a new class of TKIs that are covalently bound to their target residue of kinase receptors. Currently, there are many new TCKIs under clinical development besides afatinib, ibrutinib, osimertinib, neratinib, acalabrutinib, dacomitinib, and zanubrutinib that are already approved by the FDA. Subsequently, there is an increasing demand for bioanalytical methods to qualitatively and quantitively investigate those compounds, leading to a number of papers reporting the development, validation, and use of bioanalytical methods for TCKIs. Most publications describe the technological set up of analytical methods that allow quantification of TCKIs in various biomatrices such as plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, tissue, and liver microsomes. In addition, the identification of metabolites and biotransformation pathways of new TCKIs has gained more interest in recent years. We provide an overview of bioanalytical methods of this new class of TCKIs. The included issues are sample pretreatment, chromatographic separation, detection, and method validation. In the scope of bioanalysis of TCKIs, protein precipitation is mostly applied to treat the biological matrices sample. Liquid chromatographic in reversed-phase mode (RPLC) and mass detection with triple quadrupole (QqQ) are the most often utilized separation and quantitative detection modes, respectively. There may be a possibility of increased use of the high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for qualitative investigation purposes in the future. We also found that US FDA and EMA guidelines are the most common guidelines employed as validation framework for the bioanalytical methods of TCKIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene A Retmana
- The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Division of Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jos H Beijnen
- Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands; The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rolf W Sparidans
- Utrecht University, Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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Quantitative bioanalytical assay for the selective RET inhibitors selpercatinib and pralsetinib in mouse plasma and tissue homogenates using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1147:122131. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Li W, Perpinioti N, Schinkel AH, Beijnen JH, Sparidans RW. Bioanalytical assay for the new-generation ROS1/TRK/ALK inhibitor repotrectinib in mouse plasma and tissue homogenate using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1144:122098. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Li W, Sparidans R, El-Lari M, Wang Y, Lebre MC, Beijnen JH, Schinkel AH. P-glycoprotein (ABCB1/MDR1) limits brain accumulation and Cytochrome P450-3A (CYP3A) restricts oral availability of the novel FGFR4 inhibitor fisogatinib (BLU-554). Int J Pharm 2019; 573:118842. [PMID: 31759109 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Fisogatinib (BLU-554) is a highly selective and potent oral fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 (FGFR4) inhibitor currently in Phase I clinical trials for treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Using (male) genetically modified mouse models, we investigated the roles of the multidrug efflux transporters ABCB1 and ABCG2, the OATP1A/1B uptake transporters, and the drug-metabolizing CYP3A complex in fisogatinib pharmacokinetics. In vitro, fisogatinib was modestly transported by hABCB1. Upon oral administration of 10 mg/kg fisogatinib, its brain accumulation was substantially increased in Abcb1a/1b-/- (6.3-fold) and Abcb1a/1b;Abcg2-/- mice (7.2-fold) compared to wild-type mice, but not in single Abcg2-/- mice. The oral plasma pharmacokinetics and liver distribution of fisogatinib were not significantly affected by the absence of Oatp1a/1b drug uptake transporters. We further found that plasma exposure of fisogatinib in Cyp3a-/- mice increased by 1.4-fold, and was subsequently 1.6-fold decreased upon transgenic overexpression of human CYP3A4 in liver and intestine. However, the relative tissue distribution of fisogatinib remained unaltered. In summary, in mice, fisogatinib brain accumulation is substantially limited by ABCB1 P-glycoprotein in the blood-brain barrier, and oral availability of fisogatinib is markedly restricted by CYP3A activity. The obtained insights may be useful for optimizing the clinical efficacy and safety of fisogatinib.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenlong Li
- Division of Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rolf Sparidans
- Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Mujtaba El-Lari
- Division of Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Yaogeng Wang
- Division of Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria C Lebre
- Division of Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jos H Beijnen
- Division of Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Faculty of Science, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Alfred H Schinkel
- Division of Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Ntshangase S, Mdanda S, Naicker T, Kruger HG, Govender T, Baijnath S. Rilpivirine as a potential candidate for the treatment of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). J Mol Histol 2019; 50:295-303. [PMID: 31011919 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-019-09826-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
As the HIV epidemic continues to contribute to global morbidity and mortality, the prevalence of HIV-associated neurological disorders (HAND) also continues to be a major concern in infected individuals, despite the widespread use of combination antiretroviral therapy. Therefore, current antiretroviral drugs should be able to reach therapeutic levels in the brain for the treatment of HAND. The brain distribution of the next-generation non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, rilpivirine (RPV) was investigated in healthy female Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. The presented study involves the use of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to estimate the concentrations of RPV in plasma and brain homogenate samples. The use of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) provided regional spatial distribution of RPV in brain tissue sections. The localization of RPV was found to be relatively high in the hypothalamus, thalamus and corpus callosum, brain regions known to be associated with neurodegeneration during HAND (including the cerebral cortex). This study has shown that RPV has an excellent blood-brain barrier penetrability. Thus, in combination with other antiretroviral drugs, better central nervous system (CNS) protection against HAND can possibly be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sphamandla Ntshangase
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, E-block, 6th floor, Room E1-06-016, Durban, South Africa
| | - Sipho Mdanda
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, E-block, 6th floor, Room E1-06-016, Durban, South Africa
| | - Tricia Naicker
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, E-block, 6th floor, Room E1-06-016, Durban, South Africa
| | - Hendrik G Kruger
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, E-block, 6th floor, Room E1-06-016, Durban, South Africa
| | - Thavendran Govender
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, E-block, 6th floor, Room E1-06-016, Durban, South Africa
| | - Sooraj Baijnath
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, E-block, 6th floor, Room E1-06-016, Durban, South Africa.
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