Extraction of medicinal cannabinoids through supercritical carbon dioxide technologies: A review

Postbiotics are a candidate for new functional foods

Accumulating studies have highlighted the great potential of postbiotics in alleviating diseases and protecting host health. Compared with traditional functional foods (such as probiotics and prebiotics), postbiotics have the advantages of a single composition, high physiological activity, long shelf life, easy absorption, and high targeting, etc. The development of postbiotics has led to a wide range of potential applications in functional food and drug development. However, the lack of clinical trial data, mechanism analyses, safety evaluations, and effective regulatory frameworks has limited the application of postbiotic products. This review describes the definition, classification, sources, and preparation methods of postbiotics, the progress and mechanism of preclinical and clinical research in improving host diseases, and their application in food. Strengthen understanding of the recognition and development of related products to lay a theoretical foundation.

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography using a miniaturized multiloop splitter-based non-cryogenic artificial trapping (M-SNAT) modulation device for analysis of cannabis samples

Multiloop splitter-based non-cryogenic artificial trapping (M-SNAT) modulation technique was developed, miniaturized and applied in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) for analysis of cannabis samples. The approach employed deactivated fuse silica (DFS) columns configured into multiple loop splitter system halving the perimeters of the progressively upstream loops. This splitter device was located between the first (1D) semi-nonpolar column outlet and a microfluidic Deans switch (DS). Each splitter loop splits a peak into two subpeaks having the same area with different void times. Three loops were then applied resulting in the number of the split subpeaks (nsplit) of 8 for each peak, and retention time differences between any two adjacent subpeaks (∆tR,split) were the same. By applying periodic heartcut event (H/C) within every artificial modulation period (PAM) of nsplit×∆tR,split, comprehensive split-and-trapped modulation profiles of analytes could be selectively transferred onto the second (2D) polar column (30 m) without cryogen consumption. This artificial modulation system was applied for analysis of cannabis samples with enhanced 2D peak capacity (2nc∼15). The established method was applied to analyse cannabis extracts using vegetable oils with or without frying process. This reveals 454 different peaks with 76, 92, 35 and 70 specific components specifically observed by using olive oil extraction (OE), fried OE, coconut oil extraction (CE) and fried CE, respectively.

Effect of Hemp Extraction Procedures on Cannabinoid and Terpenoid Composition

A variety of techniques have been developed to extract hemp phytochemicals for research and consumption. Some of the most common processes in the industry include supercritical CO2 extraction, hydrodistillation, and solvent-based (ethanol) extractions. Each of these processes has the potential to differentially extract various phytochemicals, which would impact their efficacy, tolerability, and safety. However, despite these differences, there has been no direct comparison of the methods and the resulting phytochemical composition. This work aimed to compare cannabinoid and terpene profiles using the three primary commercial procedures, using hemp inflorescence from a CBD/CBG dominant Cannabis sativa L. cultivar. Extracts were then evaluated for their terpene and cannabinoid content using GC-MS and LC-MS/MS, respectively. Hydrodistilled extracts contained the most variety and abundance of terpenes with β-caryophyllene to be the most concentrated terpene (25-42 mg/g). Supercritical CO2 extracts displayed a minimal variety of terpenes, but the most variety and abundance of cannabinoids with CBD ranging from 12.8-20.6 mg/g. Ethanol extracts contained the most acidic cannabinoids with 3.2-4.1 mg/g of CBDA along with minor terpene levels. The resulting extracts demonstrated substantially different chemical profiles and highlight how the process used to extract hemp can play a large role in product composition and potential biological effects.

Fabrication of a biochar-doped monolithic adsorbent and its application for the extraction and determination of coumarins from Angelicae Pubescentis Radix

A monolithic adsorbent was designed aiming to the structure of osthole and columbianadin, and fabricated using diallyl phthalate as the monomer and ethylene dimethacrylate as the crosslinker with the addition of bamboo biochar, via polymerization reaction in a stainless-steel tube. The prepared composite adsorbent packed in the tube was used as a solid-phase extraction column for the extraction and determination of two coumarins (osthole and columbianadin) in Angelicae Pubescentis Radix, combing with a C18 analytical column through an HPLC instrument, which show excellent matrix-removal ability and good selectivity to osthole and columbianadin. Furthermore, the present adsorbent shows good applicability, which was used for the extraction of osthole from Duhuo Jisheng Pill. Compared to the commercial C18 and phenyl adsorbent, the present adsorbent own better selectivity and higher resolution. These results attributed to the enhanced specific surface area (141 m2/g) and enriched interaction sites of the resulting composite adsorbent, due to the doping of bamboo biochar, which can produce hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole, π-π and hydrophobic force interactions with the osthole and columbianadin. The methodology validation indicated that the present method showed good precision and good accuracy, and the composite adsorbent showed good preparative repeatability, which can be reused for no less than 100 times with the relative standard deviation ≤4.6 % (n = 100). The present work provided a simple and efficient method for the extraction and determination osthole and columbianadin from Angelicae Pubescentis Radix.

Supercritical fluid-based method for selective extraction and analysis of indole alkaloids from Uncaria rhynchophylla

The development of an approach based on simultaneous supercritical fluid extraction-sample cleanup, followed by supercritical fluid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (SFE-SFC-MS/MS) was as a tool for the extraction, separation and characterization of indole alkaloids of Uncaria rhynchophylla. A two-step SFE method was designed. A mixture of the U. rhynchophylla sample and an adsorbent named C18SCX with the ratio of 1:1 (w/w) was placed into an extraction cell. The extraction temperature was 40 °C and the pressure was 25 Mpa. In the first step, 10 % EtOH as the co-solvent was used to extract for 60 min, which was considered as a cleanup process to remove non-alkaloid components. In the second step, 0.1 % DEA was added to 10 % EtOH and it extracted for 60 min to obtain the desired extract. By introducing an additional adsorbent, the specificity of SFE towards alkaloids was greatly improved. An SFC-MS/MS method was then utilized for analysis of the SFE extract. Using 2-EP as stationary phase with the gradient elution of 0-10 min, 5-25 % EtOH (+0.05 % DEA) in CO2, column temperature 40 °C, and back pressure 13.8 Mpa, 10 peaks were separated within 8 min. Further MS/MS analysis confirmed that nine of the 10 peaks in the SFE extract were indole alkaloids. This study developed a supercritical fluid-based method specifically towards extraction and analysis of alkaloids, which is helpful to the study of alkaline compounds in complex samples.

Phytocannabinoids: Pharmacological effects, biomedical applications, and worldwide prospection

Scientific evidence exists about the association between neurological diseases (i.e., Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, depression, and memory loss) and oxidative damage. The increasing worldwide incidence of such diseases is attracting the attention of researchers to find palliative medications to reduce the symptoms and promote quality of life, in particular, in developing countries, e.g., South America and Africa. Among potential alternatives, extracts of Cannabis Sativa L. are suitable for people who have neurological disorders, spasticity, and pain, nausea, resulting from diseases such as cancer and arthritis. In this review, we discuss the latest developments in the use of Cannabis, its subtypes and constituents, extraction methods, and relevant pharmacological effects. Biomedical applications, marketed products, and prospects for the worldwide use of Cannabis Sativa L. extracts are also discussed, providing the bibliometric maps of scientific literature published in representative countries from South America (i.e., Brazil) and Africa (i.e., South Africa). A lack of evidence on the effectiveness and safety of Cannabis, besides the concerns about addiction and other adverse events, has led many countries to act with caution before changing Cannabis-related regulations. Recent findings are expected to increase the social acceptance of Cannabis, while new technologies seem to boost the global cannabis market because the benefits of (-)-trans-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) use have been proven in several studies in addition to the potential to general new employment.

The regulation of carbon dioxide on food microorganisms: A review

This review presents a survey of two extremely important technologies about CO2 with the effectiveness of controlling microorganisms - atmospheric pressure CO2-based modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and high pressure CO2 non-thermal pasteurization (HPCD). CO2-based MAP is effectively in delaying the lag and logarithmic phases of microorganisms by replacing the surrounding air, while HPCD achieved sterilization by subjecting food to either subcritical or supercritical CO2 for some time in a continuous, batch or semi-batch way. In addition to the advantages of healthy, eco-friendly, quality-preserving, effective characteristic, some challenges such as the high drip loss and packaging collapse associated with higher concentration of CO2, the fuzzy mechanisms of oxidative stress, the unproven specific metabolic pathways and biomarkers, etc., in CO2-based MAP, and the unavoidable extraction of bioactive compounds, the challenging application in solid foods with higher efficiency, the difficult balance between optimal sterilization and optimal food quality, etc., in HPCD still need more efforts to overcome. The action mechanism of CO2 on microorganisms, researches in recent years, problems and future perspectives are summarized. When dissolved in solution medium or cellular fluids, CO2 can form carbonic acid (H2CO3), and H2CO3 can further dissociate into bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and hydrogen cations (H+) ionic species following series equilibria. The action mode of CO2 on microorganisms may be relevant to changes in intracellular pH, alteration of proteins, enzyme structure and function, alteration of cell membrane function and fluidity, and so on. Nevertheless, the effects of CO2 on microbial biofilms, energy metabolism, protein and gene expression also need to be explored more extensively and deeply to further understand the action mechanism of CO2 on microorganisms.

Therapeutic Potential of Minor Cannabinoids in Dermatological Diseases-A Synthetic Review

Dermatological diseases pose a significant burden on the quality of life of individuals and can be challenging to treat effectively. In this aspect, cannabinoids are gaining increasing importance due to their therapeutic potential in various disease entities including skin diseases. In this synthetic review, we comprehensively analyzed the existing literature in the field of potential dermatological applications of a lesser-known subgroup of cannabinoids, the so-called minor cannabinoids, such as cannabidivarin (CBDV), cannabidiforol (CBDP), cannabichromene (CBC), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabielsoin (CBE), cannabimovone (CBM) or cannabinol (CBN), while drawing attention to their unique pharmacological properties. We systematically searched the available databases for relevant studies and analyzed the data to provide an overview of current thematic knowledge. We looked through the full-text, bibliographic and factographic databases, especially Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Polish Scientific Journals Database, and selected the most relevant papers. Our review highlights that minor cannabinoids exhibit diverse pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, and anti-itch properties. Several studies have reported their efficacy in mitigating symptoms associated with dermatological diseases such as psoriasis, eczema, acne, and pruritus. Furthermore, minor cannabinoids have shown potential in regulating sebum production, a crucial factor in acne pathogenesis. The findings of this review suggest that minor cannabinoids hold therapeutic promise in the management of dermatological diseases. Further preclinical and clinical investigations are warranted to elucidate their mechanisms of action, determine optimal dosage regimens, and assess long-term safety profiles. Incorporating minor cannabinoids into dermatological therapies could potentially offer novel treatment options of patients and improve their overall well-being.

Phenotypic Analysis, Molecular Characterization, and Antibiogram of Caries-Causing Bacteria Isolated from Dental Patients

Dental caries is a biofilm-mediated, sugar-driven, multifactorial, dynamic disease that results in the phasic demineralization and remineralization of dental hard tissues. Despite scientific advances in cariology, dental caries remains a severe global concern. The aim of this study was to determine the optimization of microbial and molecular techniques for the detection of cariogenic pathogens in dental caries patients, the prevalence of cariogenic bacteria on the basis of socioeconomic, climatological, and hygienic factors, and in vitro evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of selected synthetic antibiotics and herbal extracts. In this study, oral samples were collected from 900 patients for bacterial strain screening on a biochemical and molecular basis. Plant extracts, such as ginger, garlic, neem, tulsi, amla, and aloe vera, were used to check the antimicrobial activity against the isolated strains. Synthetic antimicrobial agents, such as penicillin, amoxicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, metronidazole, doxycycline, ceftazidime, levofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin, were also used to access the antimicrobial activity. Among 900 patients, 63% were males and 37% were females, patients aged between 36 and 58 (45.7%) years were prone to disease, and the most common symptom was toothache (61%). For oral diseases, 21% used herbs, 36% used antibiotics, and 48% were self-medicated, owing to sweets consumption (60.66%) and fizzy drinks and fast food (51.56%). Staphylococcus mutans (29.11%) and Streptococcus sobrinus (28.11%) were found as the most abundant strains. Seven bacterial strains were successfully screened and predicted to be closely related to genera S. sobrinus, S. mutans, Actinomyces naeslundii, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Eubacterium nodatum, Propionibacterium acidifaciens, and Treponema Pallidum. Among plant extracts, the maximum zone of inhibition was recorded by ginger (22.36 mm) and amla (20.01 mm), while among synthetic antibiotics, ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin were most effective against all microbes. This study concluded that phyto extracts of ginger and amla were considered suitable alternatives to synthetic antibiotics to treat dental diseases.

Cannabis Extraction Technologies: Impact of Research and Value Addition in Latin America

The Cannabis genus of plants has been widely used in different cultures for various purposes. It is separated into three main species: sativa, indica, and ruderalis. In ancient practices, the plant was used as a multipurpose crop and valued for its fiber, food, and medicinal uses. Since methodologies for the extraction, processing, and identification of components have become available, medical, and food applications have been increasing, allowing potential development in the pharmaceutical and healthy functional food industries. Although the growing legalization and adoption of cannabis for the treatment of diseases are key factors pushing the growth of its market, the biggest challenge is to obtain higher-quality products in a time- and cost-effective fashion, making the process of extraction and separation an essential step. Latin American countries exhibit great knowledge of extraction technologies; nevertheless, it is still necessary to verify whether production costs are economically profitable. In addition, there has been an increase in commercial cannabis products that may or may not be allowed, with or without quality fact sheets, which can pose health risks. Hence, legalization is mandatory and urgent for the rest of Latin American countries. In this article, the phytochemical compounds (cannabinoids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds), the current status of legalization, extraction techniques, and research advances in cannabis in Latin America are reviewed.

Extraction techniques for bioactive compounds of cannabis

Historically, cannabis has always constituted a component of the civilized world; archaeological discoveries indicate that it is one of the oldest crops, while, up until the 19th century, cannabis fibers were extensively used in a variety of applications, and its seeds comprised a part of human and livestock nutrition. Additional evidence supports its exploitation for medicinal purposes in the ancient world. The cultivation of cannabis gradually declined as hemp fibers gave way to synthetic fibers, while the intoxicating ability of THC eventually overshadowed the extensive potential of cannabis. Nevertheless, the proven value of certain non-intoxicating cannabinoids, such as CBD and CBN, has recently given rise to an entire market which promotes cannabis-based products. An increase in the research for recovery and exploitation of beneficial cannabinoids has also been observed, with more than 10 000 peer-reviewed research articles published annually. In the present review, a brief overview of the history of cannabis is given. A look into the classification approaches of cannabis plants/species as well as the associated nomenclature is provided, followed by a description of their chemical characteristics and their medically valuable components. The application areas could not be absent from the present review. Still, the main focus of the review is the discussion of work conducted in the field of extraction of valuable bioactive compounds from cannabis. We conclude with a summary of the current status and outlook on the topics that future research should address.

Bioactive Compounds of Verbascum sinuatum L.: Health Benefits and Potential as New Ingredients for Industrial Applications

Verbascum sinuatum (V. sinuatum) is a plant belonging to the Scrophulariaceae family that has been used as an ingredient in traditional medicine infusions for the treatment of many diseases. The aerial part of this plant is a source of bioactive compounds, especially polyphenols and iridoids. Moreover, antioxidant activity studies have shown that V. sinuatum phenolic and flavonoid composition is higher than those in other plants of the same genus. V. sinuatum bioactive compound composition could vary according to the harvesting location, growing conditions of the plants, sample preparation methods, type and concentration of the extraction solvent, and the extraction methods. The obtention of these compounds can be achieved by different extraction techniques, most commonly, maceration, heat assisted extraction, and infusion. Nevertheless, since conventional extraction techniques have several drawbacks such as long times of extraction or use of large amounts of solvents, the use of green extraction techniques is suggested, without affecting the efficiency of the extraction. Moreover, V. sinuatum bioactive compounds have several biological activities, such as antioxidant, anticancer, cardiovascular, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities, that may be increased by encapsulation. Since the bioactive compounds extracted from V. sinuatum present good potential as functional food ingredients and in the development of drugs or cosmetics, this review gives an approach of the possible incorporation of these compounds in the food and pharmacological industries.

Dysmenorrhoea: Can Medicinal Cannabis Bring New Hope for a Collective Group of Women Suffering in Pain, Globally?

Dysmenorrhoea effects up to 90% of women of reproductive age, with medical management options including over-the-counter analgesia or hormonal contraception. There has been a recent surge in medicinal cannabis research and its analgesic properties. This paper aims to critically investigate the current research of medicinal cannabis for pain relief and to discuss its potential application to treat dysmenorrhoea. Relevant keywords, including medicinal cannabis, pain, cannabinoids, tetrahydrocannabinol, dysmenorrhoea, and clinical trial, have been searched in the PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library (Wiley) databases and a clinical trial website (clinicaltrials.gov). To identify the relevant studies for this paper, 84 papers were reviewed and 20 were discarded as irrelevant. This review critically evaluated cannabis-based medicines and their mechanism and properties in relation to pain relief. It also tabulated all clinical trials carried out investigating medicinal cannabis for pain relief and highlighted the side effects. In addition, the safety and toxicology of medicinal cannabis and barriers to use are highlighted. Two-thirds of the clinical trials summarised confirmed positive analgesic outcomes, with major side effects reported as nausea, drowsiness, and dry mouth. In conclusion, medicinal cannabis has promising applications in the management of dysmenorrhoea. The global medical cannabis market size was valued at USD 11.0 billion in 2021 and is expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 21.06% from 2022 to 2030. This will encourage academic as well as the pharmaceutical and medical device industries to study the application of medical cannabis in unmet clinical disorders.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Cannabinoids from Cannabis Sativa for Medicinal Purpose

Over the past 20 years, the interest in Cannabis oily extracts for medicinal use compounded in pharmacy has consistently grown, along with the need to have preparations of adequate quality. Hot maceration (M) is the most frequently used method to compound oily solutions. In this work, we systematically studied the possibility of using an ultrasonic homogenizer and a sonotrode (US) as an alternative extraction method. Oily solutions were prepared using two available varieties of Cannabis for medicinal use, called FM2 and Bedrocan. All preparations resulted with an equivalent content in CBD and THC, with the advantage of a faster process using US. In particular, 10 min sonication at the amplitude optimized for the sonotrode used (2 or 7 mm) provides not statistically different total Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (M-FM2: 0.26 ± 0.02 % w/w; US-FM2: 0.19 ± 0.004 % w/w; M-Bedrocan: 1.83 ± 0.17 % w/w; US-Bedrocan: 1.98 ± 0.01 % w/w) and total cannabidiol (M-FM2: 0.59 ± 0.04 % w/w; US-FM2: 0.58 ± 0.01 % w/w) amounts extracted in refined olive oil. It can therefore be confirmed that sonotrode is an efficient and fast extraction technique and its use is without negative consequence on the solvent properties. Despite DSC evidencing that both maceration and sonication modify the T_onset and enthalpy of the event at about -10 °C, the qualitative characteristics of the oil remained constant for the two treatments and similar to the starting material.

Highly sensitive and selective colorimetric sensing of CO2 for biomedical applications

The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in unhealthy people differs greatly from healthy people. High-precision CO₂ detection with a quick response time is essential for many biomedical applications. A major focus of this research is on the detection of CO₂, one of the most important health biomarkers. We investigated a low-cost, flexible, and reliable strategy by using dyes for colorimetric CO₂ sensing in this study. The impacts of temperature, pH, reaction time, reusability, concentration, and dye selectivity were studied thoroughly. This study described real-time CO₂ analysis. Using this multi-dye method, we got an average detection limit of 1.98 ppm for CO₂, in the range of 50-120 ppm. A portable colorimetric instrument with a smartphone-assisted unit was constructed to determine the relative red/green/blue values for real-time and practical applications within 15 s of interaction and the readings are very similar to those of an optical fiber probe. Environmental and biological chemistry applications are likely to benefit greatly from this unique approach.

Characterizing the degradation of cannabidiol in an e-liquid formulation

The reported characteristics of cannabidiol (CBD) have encouraged significant growth in commercial CBD products. There is limited information on the stability of CBD and some researchers have noted significant reductions of CBD in products. In this study, the chemical profiles of plant-based and chemically synthesized CBD in a prototype e-liquid formulation were assessed during 4 weeks of storage under varying conditions. Samples were analysed on days 1, 8, 15, 22, and 29 by untargeted analysis using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-trapped ion mobility-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-TIMS-TOF-MS). On day 1, analysis of plant-based and synthetic CBD formulations showed small differences in their composition, with plant-based CBD e-liquid containing trace levels of a higher number of phytocannabinoid-related impurities. Storage for 4 weeks under stress (40 °C, 75% relative humidity, dark) and ambient (25 °C, 60% relative humidity, daylight) conditions led to increases in the number and abundance of cannabinoid-related degradation products, including cannabielsoin (CBE) and CBD-hydroxyquinone (HU-331), which are products of the oxidation of CBD, and other unidentified cannabinoid-related compounds. The unidentified cannabinoid-related compounds were probed by accurate mass measurement and MS² fragmentation but could not be matched using a mass spectral library derived from 39 commercially available cannabinoid reference standards. Based on elemental composition and MS² fragmentation patterns, the unidentified cannabinoid-related compounds were classified as hydroxy-CBE, hydroxy-CBD, and dihydroxy-CBD. The analysis of e-liquid formulations protected from light and stored at 4 °C for 4 weeks indicated only very small increases in CBD oxidation products. The results indicate that CBD degrades in e-liquid solution at ambient temperature in dark and light to form potentially undesirable products, including cannabielsoin and cannabidiol hydroxyquinone.

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Process for Hibiscus taiwanensis S. Y. Hu and Tyrosinase Inhibitory Activity of Its Extract

In this study, the bioactive components in the stem of Hibiscus taiwanensis S. Y. Hu were extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), and the inhibition activity of the extract tyrosinase was analyzed. When the particle size of the powder was controlled to be 50 mesh, the effects of temperatures (40, 45, 50, 55, and 60 °C), pressures (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 MPa), concentrations of entrainment agent (ethanol) (60, 80, and 95%) and CO2 flow rates (80, 100, 120, and 140 L/min) on the extraction rate, respectively, were studied with the single-variable method. The optimal parameters included an extraction temperature of 55 °C, an extraction pressure of 30 MPa, 80% ethanol as the entrainment agent, and the CO2 flow rate of 100 L/min. Under the optimal conditions, the extraction rate of Hibiscus taiwanensis S. Y. Hu reached more than 0.5% within 2 h. At the same time, the chemical compositions of the extract were investigated by using high-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) equipped with a linear ion trap-electrostatic field orbital trap. In addition, the related activity of extract in the stem Hibiscus taiwanensis S. Y. Hu was evaluated by tyrosinase inhibition experiments. The results showed that the inhibition rate of the extract with a concentration of 0.25 mg/mL to tyrosinase reached 35.60%, indicating that the extract by SC-CO2 had the potential to be used for whitening active raw materials.

Is There Enough Knowledge to Standardize a Cannabis sativa L. Medicinal Oil Preparation with a High Content of Cannabinoids?

Introduction: Cannabis sativa L. medicinal oils are good therapeutic options due to their wide spectrum of pharmacological applications and the easy adjustment of individual doses. The lack of standardization of methodology in the preparation of medicinal oil using the Cannabis crude extract results in elevated variability of cannabinoid concentration in the final product. The elevated variability impairs the understanding of beneficial and adverse effects related to dose-response pharmacological activities. Objective: This study aimed to conduct a review on the current methods of Cannabis oil preparation present in the literature, to demonstrate the most appropriate methodologies to ensure a product with high content of cannabinoids and terpenes. Results: The decarboxylation stage is essential for the conversion of acid cannabinoids into neutral cannabinoids, which are substances with the highest bioavailability. Lower temperatures for longer periods of time instead of high temperatures in less time are highly recommended to ensure that all the acidic cannabinoids have passed through decarboxylation. For the guarantee of a high terpene content, the separate addition of essential oil to the fixed oil prepared from the crude extract should be considered. Ultrasound-assisted extraction is one of the best performing methodologies because it is cheaper than other techniques, such as supercritical fluid extraction, besides that, ultrasound extraction is effective in short extraction times and uses small amounts of solvent when compared with other techniques. Conclusion: Although the literature about the methods of preparation of Cannabis medicinal oil is scarce, it is possible to standardize an optimized, low-cost, and effective Cannabis extractive methodology from the results found in the literature; however, this will depend on new research for methodological validation.

Isotopic Characterization of Italian Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Intended for Food Use: A First Exploratory Study

In this study, Italian industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) intended for food use was isotopically characterized for the first time. The stable isotope ratios of five bioelements were analyzed in different parts of the plant (i.e., roots, stems, inflorescences, and seeds) sampled in eight different regions of Italy, and in five hemp seed oils. The values of δ2H, δ13C, δ18O, and δ34S differed according to the latitude and, therefore, to the geographical origin of the samples and the climate conditions of plant growth, while the δ15N values allowed us to distinguish between crops grown under conventional and organic fertilization. The findings from this preliminary study corroborate the reliability of using light stable isotope ratios to characterize hemp and its derived food products and contribute to the creation of a first isotopic database for this plant, paving the way for future studies on authentication, traceability, and verification of organic labeling.

Characterization and Biological Activity of Fiber-Type Cannabis sativa L. Aerial Parts at Different Growth Stages

Currently, there is a renewed interest in cannabis-related products in different fields because of the rich phytocomplex of this plant, together with its fiber and agricultural features. In this context, the current study aims to chemically characterize different samples of fiber-type Cannabis sativa L. grown in Italy as a potential health promoting source. An ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction (UA-SLE) method was first developed and optimized to obtain a fingerprinting of the investigated phytocomplex. Analyses were carried out through an ultra high performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photodiode array detector in series with triple quadrupole system with an electrospray ionization (ESI) interface (UHPLC-UV-ESI-MS/MS) and showed that the phytocomplex mainly includes flavonoids and non-psychotomimetic cannabinoids. The method was then applied to characterize and compare 24 samples of fiber-type Cannabis sativa L. aerial parts (mainly stems and leaves), which differed for the growth stages (from mid-vegetative to early flowering), growth land plots, and methods of drying (forced-draft oven or freeze-drying). The quali-quantitative analysis showed that a freeze-drying method seems to better preserve the chemical composition of the samples, while the location of the land plot and the growth stage of the plant (which did not comprise inflorescences) had minor influences on the chemical pattern. These results were also supported by spectrophotometric in-vitro assays (scavenging of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH^•) and 2,2'-azinobis-3-ethyl-benzthiazoline-6-sulphonate (ABTS^+•) radicals and inhibitory activity against tyrosinase and elastase enzymes) to investigate the potential biological activity of these samples and the contribution of non-psychotomimetic cannabinoids.

Effects of Ethanol on the Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Cannabinoids from Near Equimolar (THC and CBD Balanced) Cannabis Flower

In this study, supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) extractions of cannabinoids were conducted at four different densities (231, 590, 818, and 911 kg/m3) using ethanol (5% w/v) as a co-solvent. The chemical profiles of these cannabinoids were analysed via reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). It was determined that scCO2, at low density (231 kg/m3), produced an extract yield of 6.1% w/v. At high scCO2 density (~818 kg/m3), the yield was 16.1% w/v. More specifically, the amounts of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) in the scCO2 extract at 818 kg/m3 were 10.8 and 15.6% w/v, respectively. It was also found that the use of 5% w/v ethanol increased scCO2 extract yields at both low and high densities (7.6% w/v and 18.2% w/v, respectively). Additionally, the use of co-solvent increased this yield further under both low- and high-density conditions, to 13.7 and 19.1% w/v, respectively. Interestingly, higher scCO2 density (911 kg/m3) with and without ethanol did not improve the scCO2 extract yield or the amount of cannabinoids. Although this study provides new insights into the correlation between scCO2 density and ethanol co-extraction of CBD and THC, more studies are needed to determine how different scCO2 densities and co-solvents influence the extraction of cannabinoids.