Utility and Challenges of an Early Invasive Strategy in Patients Resuscitated From Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest

Acute Coronary Occlusion in Patients With Non-ST-Segment Elevation Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest

BACKGROUND

According to current guidelines, hemodynamic status should guide the decision between immediate and delayed coronary angiography (CAG) in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients without ST-segment elevation. A delayed strategy is advised in hemodynamically stable patients, and an immediate approach is recommended in unstable patients.

OBJECTIVES

This study sought to assess the frequency, predictors, and clinical impact of acute coronary occlusion in hemodynamically stable and unstable OHCA patients without ST-segment elevation.

METHODS

Consecutive unconscious OHCA patients without ST-segment elevation who were undergoing CAG at Bern University Hospital (Bern, Switzerland) between 2011 and 2019 were included. Frequency and predictors of acute coronary artery occlusions and their impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality at 1 year were assessed.

RESULTS

Among the 386 patients, 169 (43.8%) were hemodynamically stable. Acute coronary occlusions were found in 19.5% of stable and 24.0% of unstable OHCA patients (P = 0.407), and the presence of these occlusions was predicted by initial chest pain and shockable rhythm, but not by hemodynamic status. Acute coronary occlusion was associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular death (adjusted HR: 2.74; 95% CI: 1.22-6.15) but not of all-cause death (adjusted HR: 0.72; 95% CI: 0.44-1.18). Hemodynamic instability was not predictive of fatal outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute coronary artery occlusions were found in 1 in 5 OHCA patients without ST-segment elevation. The frequency of these occlusions did not differ between stable and unstable patients, and the occlusions were associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular death. In OHCA patients without ST-segment elevation, chest pain or shockable rhythm rather than hemodynamic status identifies patients with acute coronary occlusion.

Urine Output and Mortality in Patients Resuscitated from out of Hospital Cardiac Arrest

BACKGROUND

Limited data exist regarding urine output (UO) as a prognostic marker in out-of-hospital-cardiac-arrest (OHCA) survivors undergoing targeted temperature management (TTM).

METHODS

We included 247 comatose adult patients who underwent TTM after OHCA between 2007 and 2017, excluding patients with end-stage renal disease. Three groups were defined based on mean hourly UO during the first 24 h: Group 1 (<0.5 mL/kg/h, n = 73), Group 2 (0.5-1 mL/kg/h, n = 81) and Group 3 (>1 mL/kg/h, n = 93). Serum creatinine was used to classify acute kidney injury (AKI). The primary and secondary outcomes respectively were in-hospital mortality and favorable neurological outcome at hospital discharge (modified Rankin Scale [mRS]<3).

RESULTS

In-hospital mortality decreased incrementally as UO increased (adjusted OR 0.9 per 0.1 mL/kg/h higher; p = 0.002). UO < 0.5 mL/kg/h was strongly associated with higher in-hospital mortality (adjusted OR 4.2 [1.6-10.8], p = 0.003) and less favorable neurological outcomes (adjusted OR 0.4 [0.2-0.8], p = 0.007). Even among patients without AKI, lower UO portended higher mortality (40% vs 15% vs 9% for UO groups 1, 2, and 3 respectively, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Higher UO is incrementally associated with lower in-hospital mortality and better neurological outcomes. Oliguria may be a more sensitive early prognostic marker than creatinine-based AKI after OHCA.

Coronary Angiography in Patients With Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Without ST-Segment Elevation on Electrocardiograms: A Comprehensive Review

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is among the most common causes of death in the United States. Early coronary angiography (CAG) and percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) have been associated with improved long-term outcomes in patients with ST-segment elevation (STE) on prearrest or postarrest electrocardiograms. However, data on the utility of catheterization and PCI for improving outcomes after OHCA in patients without STE on electrocardiograms are heterogeneous, with variable results. Although older data have suggested that there is a benefit, recent randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that performing early CAG in patients with OHCA without STE on electrocardiograms may not improve outcomes. In recognition that neurologic devastation and multiorgan failure are common in these patients, physicians face the challenge of selecting appropriate patients for cardiac catheterization and PCI. This review aims to summarize the current data on this topic, with the goal to guide decision making regarding the timing and appropriateness of CAG in patients with OHCA without STE on electrocardiograms, utilizing an evidence-based approach to streamline the patient selection process.

Clinical Characteristics and Prognosis of Life-Threatening Acute Myocardial Infarction in Patients Transferred to an Emergency Medical Care Center

Patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) triaged as life-threatening are transferred to our emergency medical care center (EMCC). However, data on these patients remain limited. We aimed to compare the characteristics and AMI prognosis of patients transferred to our EMCC with those transferred to our cardiovascular intensive care unit (CICU) using whole and propensity-matched cohorts.We analyzed the data of 256 consecutive AMI patients transferred from the scene to our hospital by ambulance between 2014 and 2017. The EMCC and CICU groups comprised 77 and 179 patients, respectively. There were no significant between-group age or sex differences. Patients in the EMCC group had more disease severity score and had the left main trunk identified as the culprit more frequently (12% versus 0.6%, P < 0.001) than those in the CICU group; however, the number of patients with multiple culprit vessels did not differ. The EMCC group had a longer door-to-reperfusion time (75 [60, 109] minutes versus 60 [40, 86] minutes, P< 0.001) and a higher in-hospital mortality (19% versus 4.5%, P < 0.001), especially from non-cardiac causes (10% versus 0.6%, P < 0.001), than the CICU group. However, peak myocardial creatine phosphokinase did not significantly differ between the groups. The EMCC group had a significantly higher 1-year post-discharge mortality than the CICU group (log-rank, P = 0.032); this trend was maintained after propensity score matching, although the difference was not statistically significant (log-rank, P = 0.094).AMI patients transferred to the EMCC exhibited more severe disease and worse overall in-hospital and non-cardiac mortality than those transferred to the CICU.

Contemporary Management of Concomitant Cardiac Arrest and Cardiogenic Shock Complicating Myocardial Infarction

Cardiogenic shock (CS) and cardiac arrest (CA) are the most life-threatening complications of acute myocardial infarction. Although there is a significant overlap in the pathophysiology with approximately half the patients with CS experiencing a CA and approximately two-thirds of patients with CA developing CS, comprehensive guideline recommendations for management of CA + CS are lacking. This paper summarizes the current evidence on the incidence, pathophysiology, and short- and long-term outcomes of patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated by concomitant CA + CS. We discuss the hemodynamic factors and unique challenges that need to be accounted for while developing treatment strategies for these patients. A summary of expert-based step-by-step recommendations to the approach and treatment of these patients, both in the field before admission and in-hospital management, are presented.

Immediate complete revascularization showed better outcome in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors with left main or triple-vessel coronary diseases

This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of left main or triple vessel coronary artery disease (CAD) in comatose out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) survivors and assessed their outcome based on the revascularization strategy. This multicenter, retrospective, observational registry-based study was conducted at 9 Korean tertiary care hospitals. Adult comatose OHCA survivors with left main or triple vessel CAD documented by immediate (≤ 2 h) coronary angiography after return of spontaneous circulation between 2011 and 2019 were included. The primary outcome was neurologically intact survival at 1-month. Among 727 OHCA patients, 150 (25%) had left main or triple vessel CAD and underwent complete (N = 32), incomplete (N = 78), and no immediate (N = 40) revascularization, respectively. The rate of neurologically intact survival at 1 month was significantly different among the groups (53%, 32%, and 23% for complete, incomplete, and no immediate revascularization groups, respectively; P = 0.02). After adjustment using the inverse probability of treatment weighting, complete revascularization was associated with neurologically intact survival at 1 month (odds ratio, 2.635; P = 0.01). Left main or triple vessel CAD is not uncommon in OHCA patients. The complete revascularization was associated with better outcome. Further clinical trials to confirm the best revascularization strategy are needed.

Out of hospital cardiac arrest in Western Sydney-an analysis of outcomes and estimation of future eCPR eligibility

Background

Refractory out of hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is associated with extremely poor outcomes. However, in selected patients extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (eCPR) may be an effective rescue therapy, allowing time treat reversible causes. The primary goal was to estimate the potential future caseload of eCPR at historically 'low-volume' extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) centres.

Methods

A 3-year observational study of OHCA presenting to the Emergency Department (ED of an urban referral centre without historical protocolised use of eCPR. Demographics and standard Utstein outcomes are reported. Further, an a priori analysis of each case for potential eCPR eligibility was conducted. A current eCPR selection criteria (from the 2-CHEER study) was used to determine eligibly.

Results

In the study window 248 eligible cardiac arrest cases were included in the OHCA registry. 30-day survival was 23.4% (n = 58). The mean age of survivors was 55.4 years. 17 (6.8%) cases were deemed true refractory arrests and fulfilled the 2-CHEER eligibility criteria. The majority of these cases presented within “office hours” and no case obtained a return of spontaneous circulation standard advanced life support.

Conclusions

In this contemporary OHCA registry a significant number of refractory cases were deemed potential eCPR candidates reflecting a need for future interdisciplinary work to support delivery of this therapy.

Managing the first 120 min of cardiogenic shock: from resuscitation to diagnosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiogenic shock continues to carry a high mortality, and recent randomized trials have not identified novel therapies that improve survival. Early optimization of patients with confirmed or suspected cardiogenic shock is crucial, as patients can quickly transition from a hemodynamic shock state to a treatment-resistant hemometabolic shock state, where accumulated metabolic derangements trigger a self-perpetuating cycle of worsening shock.

RECENT FINDINGS

We describe a structured ABCDE approach involving stabilization of the airway, breathing and circulation, followed by damage control and etiologic assessment. Respiratory failure is common and many cardiogenic shock patients require invasive mechanical ventilation. Norepinephrine is titrated to restore mean arterial pressure and dobutamine is titrated to restore cardiac output and organ perfusion. Echocardiography is essential to identify potential causes and characterize the phenotype of cardiogenic shock. Coronary angiography is usually indicated, particularly when acute myocardial ischemia is suspected, followed by culprit-vessel revascularization if indicated. An invasive hemodynamic assessment can clarify whether temporary mechanical circulatory support is necessary.

SUMMARY

Early stabilization of hemodynamics and end-organ function is necessary to achieve best outcomes in cardiogenic shock. Using a structured approach tailored to initial cardiogenic shock resuscitation may help to demonstrate benefit from novel therapies in the future.

Pulseless Electrical Activity as the Initial Cardiac Arrest Rhythm: Importance of Preexisting Left Ventricular Function

Background Pulseless electrical activity (PEA) is a common initial rhythm in cardiac arrest. A substantial number of PEA arrests are caused by coronary ischemia in the setting of acute coronary occlusion, but the underlying mechanism is not well understood. We hypothesized that the initial rhythm in patients with acute coronary occlusion is more likely to be PEA than ventricular fibrillation in those with prearrest severe left ventricular dysfunction. Methods and Results We studied the initial cardiac arrest rhythm induced by acute left anterior descending coronary occlusion in swine without and with preexisting severe left ventricular dysfunction induced by prior infarcts in non-left anterior descending coronary territories. Balloon occlusion resulted in ventricular fibrillation in 18 of 34 naïve animals, occurring 23.5±9.0 minutes following occlusion, and PEA in 1 animal. However, all 18 animals with severe prearrest left ventricular dysfunction (ejection fraction 15±5%) developed PEA 1.7±1.1 minutes after occlusion. Conclusions Acute coronary ischemia in the setting of severe left ventricular dysfunction produces PEA because of acute pump failure, which occurs almost immediately after coronary occlusion. After the onset of coronary ischemia, PEA occurred significantly earlier than ventricular fibrillation (<2 minutes versus 20 minutes). These findings support the notion that patients with baseline left ventricular dysfunction and suspected coronary disease who develop PEA should be evaluated for acute coronary occlusion.

Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction in High-Risk Settings

Despite the widespread adoption of primary percutaneous intervention and modern antithrombotic therapy, ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) remains the leading cause of death in the United States and remains one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Certain high-risk patients present a challenge for diagnosis and treatment. The widespread adoption of primary percutaneous intervention in addition to modern antithrombotic therapy has resulted in substantial improvement in the short- and long-term prognosis following STEMI. In this review, we aim to provide a brief analysis of the state-of-the-art treatment for patients presenting with STEMI, focusing on cardiogenic shock, current treatment and controversies, cardiac arrest, and diagnosis and treatment of mechanical complications, as well as multivessel and left main-related STEMI.

Comprehensive Cardiac Care After Cardiac Arrest

Cardiac arrest (CA) results in multiorgan ischemia until return of spontaneous circulation and often is followed by a low-flow shock state. Upon restoration of circulation and organ perfusion, resuscitative teams must act quickly to achieve clinical stability while simultaneously addressing the underlying etiology of the initial event. Optimal cardiovascular care demands focused management of the post-cardiac arrest syndrome and associated shock. Acute coronary syndrome should be considered and managed in a timely manner, because early revascularization improves patient outcomes and may suppress refractory arrhythmias. This review outlines the diagnostic and therapeutic considerations that define optimal cardiovascular care after CA.

Management of Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Complicating Acute Coronary Syndromes

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) complicating acute coronary syndromes (ACS) continues to carry a high rate of morbidity and mortality despite significant advances in EMS and interventional cardiology services. In this review, we discuss an evidence-based approach to the initial care and management of patients with OHCA complicating ACS from the pre-hospital response and initial resuscitation strategy, to advanced therapies such as coronary angiography, targeted-temperature management, neuro-prognostication, and care of the post-arrest patient.

RECENT FINDINGS

Early recognition of cardiac arrest and prompt initiation of bystander CPR are the most important factors associated with improved survival. A comprehensive and coordinated approach to in-hospital management, including PCI, targeted temperature management, critical care, and hemodynamic support represents a significant critical link in the chain of survival. OHCA complicated by ACS continues to be one of the most challenging disease states facing healthcare practitioners and maintains a high mortality rate despite substantial advancements in healthcare delivery. A comprehensive approach to in-hospital management and further exploration of novel interventions, including ECMO, may yield opportunities to optimize care and improve outcomes for cardiac arrest patients.