Nisin adsorption to hydrophobic surfaces coated with the PEO-PPO-PEO triblock surfactant Pluronic F108

Nymphaea alba leaf powder effectiveness in removing nisin from fermentation broth using docking and experimental analysis

The accumulation of nisin in the fermentation medium can reduce the process's productivity. This research studied the potential of Nymphaea alba leaf powder (NALP) as a hydrophobic biosorbent for efficient in-situ nisin adsorption from the fermentation medium by docking and experimental analysis. Molecular docking analysis showed that di-galloyl ellagic acid, a phytochemical compound found in N. alba, had the highest affinity towards nisin. Enhancements in nisin adsorption were seen following pre-treatment of NAPL with HCl and MgCl2. A logistic growth model was employed to evaluate the growth dynamics of the biosorption capacity, offering valuable insights for process scalability. Furthermore, optimization through Response Surface Methodology elucidated optimal nisin desorption conditions by Liebig's law of the minimum, which posits that the scarcest resource governs production efficiency. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy pinpointed vital functional groups involved in biosorption. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the changing physical characteristics of the biosorbent after exposure to nisin. The findings designate NALP as a feasible adsorbent for nisin removal from the fermentation broth, thus facilitating its application in the purification of other biotechnological products based on growth and production optimization principles.

Nisin-Loaded Ulvan Particles: Preparation and Characterization

Nisin is an attractive alternative to chemical preservatives in the food industry. It is a cationic peptide of 34 amino acid residues that exhibits antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. To ensure nisin stability in food matrices, new nisin-loaded ulvan particles were developed by the complexation method. The interaction of nisin with ulvan was demonstrated by FT-IR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The encapsulation efficiency was calculated at different pH values within the range of 4.0–7.0 and was found to have the highest value at pH 7.0. The size and surface charge of particles fabricated at different concentrations of nisin and pH values were determined. Nisin-loaded ulvan particles exhibited antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria comparable to that of free nisin. Therefore, the developed complexes have the potential for application as biopreservatives in the food industry. For the first time, the potential of ulvan as a carrier of antimicrobial agent nisin was demonstrated.

Effective adsorption of nisin on the surface of polystyrene using hydrophobin HGFI

Herein, a new method was demonstrated for effective immobilization of the antibacterial peptide nisin on Grifola frondosa hydrophobin (HGFI), without the need of any additional complex reaction. Hydrophobin can self-assemble as a monolayer to form continuous negative-charged surfaces with enhanced wettability and biocompatibility. Adding nisin solution to such hydrophobin surface created antibacterial surfaces. The quantification analysis revealed that more nisin could be adsorbed on the HGFI-coated than to control polystyrene surfaces at different pH values. This suggested that electronic attraction and wettability may play important roles in this process. The transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy and fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis indicated the adsorption mode of nisin on the HGFI film, i.e., hydrophobins served as an adhesive layer for binding charged peptides to interfaces. The antibacterial activity of the treated surface was investigated via counting, a nucleic acid release test, scanning electron microscopy, and biofilm detection. These results indicated the excellent antibacterial activity of nisin adsorbed on the HGFI-coated surfaces. The activity retention of adsorbed nisin was demonstrated by immersing the modified substrates in a flowed liquid condition.

Adsorption of poly(ethylene oxide)-containing amphiphilic polymers on solid-liquid interfaces: Fundamentals and applications

The adsorption of amphiphilic molecules of varying size on solid-liquid interfaces modulates the properties of colloidal systems. Nonionic, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based amphiphilic molecules are particularly useful because of their graded hydrophobic-hydrophilic nature, which allows for adsorption on a wide array of solid surfaces. Their adsorption also results in other useful properties, such as responsiveness to external stimuli and solubilization of hydrophobic compounds. This review focuses on the adsorption properties of PEO-based amphiphiles, beginning with a discussion of fundamental concepts pertaining to the adsorption of macromolecules on solid-liquid interfaces, and more specifically the adsorption of PEO homopolymers. The main portion of the review highlights studies on factors affecting the adsorption and surface self-assembly of PEO-PPO-PEO block copolymers, where PPO is poly(propylene oxide). Block copolymers of this type are commercially available and of interest in several fields, due to their low toxicity and compatibility in aqueous systems. Examples of applications relevant to the interfacial behavior of PEO-PPO-PEO block copolymers are paints and coatings, detergents, filtration, and drug delivery. The methods discussed herein for manipulating the adsorption properties of PEO-PPO-PEO are emphasized for their ability to shed light on molecular interactions at interfaces. Knowledge of these interactions guides the formulation of novel materials with useful mesoscale organization and micro- and macrophase properties.

Effect of PEO coating on bubble behavior within a polycarbonate microchannel array: A model for hemodialysis

Obstruction of fluid flow by stationary bubbles in a microchannel hemodialyzer decreases filtration performance and increases damage to blood cells through flow maldistribution. A polyethylene oxide (PEO)-polybutadiene (PB)-polyethylene oxide surface modification, previously shown to reduce protein fouling and water/air contact angle in polycarbonate microchannel hemodialyzers, can improve microchannel wettability and may reduce bubble stagnation by lessening the resistive forces that compete with fluid flow. In this study, the effect of the PEO-PB-PEO coating on bubble retention in a microchannel array was investigated. Polycarbonate microchannel surfaces were coated with PEO-PB-PEO triblock polymer via radiolytic grafting. Channel obstruction was measured for coated and uncoated microchannels after injecting a short stream of air bubbles into the device under average nominal water velocities of 0.9 to 7.2 cm/s in the channels. The presence of the PEO coating reduced obstruction of microchannels by stationary bubbles within the range of 1.8 to 3.6 cm/s, average nominal velocity. Numerical simulations based on the lattice Boltzmann method indicate that beneficial effects may be due to the maintenance of a lubricating, thin liquid film around the bubble. The determined effective range of the PEO coating for bubble management serves as an important design constraint. These findings serve to validate the multiutility of the PEO-PB-PEO coating (bubble lubrication, biocompatibility, and therapeutic loading). © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 104B: 941-948, 2016.

Inhibitory effects of nisin-coated multi-walled carbon nanotube sheet on biofilm formation from Bacillus anthracis spores

Multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) sheet was fabricated from a drawable MWCNT forest and then deposited on poly(methyl methacrylate) film. The film was further coated with a natural antimicrobial peptide nisin. We studied the effects of nisin coating on the attachment of Bacillus anthracis spores, the germination of attached spores, and the subsequent biofilm formation from attached spores. It was found that the strong adsorptivity and the super hydrophobicity of MWCNTs provided an ideal platform for nisin coating. Nisin coating on MWCNT sheets decreased surface hydrophobicity, reduced spore attachment, and reduced the germination of attached spores by 3.5 fold, and further inhibited the subsequent biofilm formation by 94.6% compared to that on uncoated MWCNT sheet. Nisin also changed the morphology of vegetative cells in the formed biofilm. The results of this study demonstrated that the anti-adhesion and antimicrobial effect of nisin in combination with the physical properties of carbon nanotubes had the potential in producing effective anti-biofilm formation surfaces.

Adsorption, structural alteration and elution of peptides at pendant PEO layers

An experimentally based, quantitative understanding of the entrapment and function of small peptides within PEO brush layers does not currently exist. Earlier work provided a rationale for expecting that an ordered, compact peptide will enter the PEO phase more readily than a peptide of similar size that adopts a less ordered, less compact form, and that amphiphilicity will promote peptide retention within the hydrophobic region of the PEO brush. Here we more deliberately describe criteria for peptide integration and structural change within the PEO brush, and discuss the reversibility of peptide entrapment with changing solvent conditions. For this purpose, circular dichroism (CD) was used to record the adsorption and conformational changes of (amphiphilic) WLBU2 and (non-amphiphilic) polyarginine peptides at uncoated (hydrophobic) and PEO-coated silica nanoparticles. Peptide conformation was controlled between disordered and α-helical forms by varying the concentration of perchlorate ion. We show an initially more ordered (α-helical) structure promotes peptide adsorption into the PEO layer. Further, a partially helical peptide undergoes an increase in helicity after entry, likely due to concomitant loss of capacity for peptide-solvent hydrogen bonding. Peptide interaction with the PEO chains resulted in entrapment and conformational change that was irreversible to elution with changing solution conditions in the case of the amphiphilic peptide. In contrast, the adsorption and conformational change of the non-amphiphilic peptide was reversible. These results indicate that responsive drug delivery systems based on peptide-loaded PEO layers can be controlled by modulation of solution conditions and peptide amphiphilicity.

Structural attributes affecting peptide entrapment in PEO brush layers

A more quantitative understanding of peptide loading and release from polyethylene oxide (PEO) brush layers will provide direction for development of new strategies for drug storage and delivery. In this work we recorded selected effects of peptide structure and amphiphilicity on adsorption into PEO brush layers based on covalently stabilized Pluronic(®)F 108. Optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy and circular dichroism measurements were used to characterize the adsorption of poly-l-glutamic acid, poly-l-lysine, and the cationic amphiphilic peptide WLBU2, to the brush layers. The structure of WLBU2 as well as that of the similarly-sized homopolymers was controlled between disordered and more ordered (helical) forms by varying solution conditions. Adsorption kinetic patterns were interpreted with reference to a simple model for protein adsorption, in order to evaluate rate constants for peptide adsorption and desorption from loosely and tightly bound states. While more ordered peptide structure apparently promoted faster adsorption and elution rates, resistance to elution while in the PEO layer was dependent on peptide amphiphilicity. The results presented here are compelling evidence of the potential to create anti-fouling surface coatings capable of storing and delivering therapeutics.

Quantifying nisin adsorption behavior at pendant PEO layers

The antimicrobial peptide nisin shows potent activity against Gram-positive bacteria including the most prevalent implant-associated pathogens. Its mechanism of action minimizes the opportunity for the rise of resistant bacteria and it does not appear to be toxic to humans, suggesting good potential for its use in antibacterial coatings for selected medical devices. A more quantitative understanding of nisin loading and release from polyethylene oxide (PEO) brush layers will inform new strategies for drug storage and delivery, and in this work optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy was used to record changes in adsorbed mass during cyclic adsorption-elution experiments with nisin, at uncoated and PEO-coated surfaces. PEO layers were prepared by radiolytic grafting of Pluronic® surfactant F108 or F68 to silanized silica surfaces, producing long- or short-chain PEO layers, respectively. Kinetic patterns were interpreted with reference to a model accounting for history-dependent adsorption, in order to evaluate rate constants for nisin adsorption and desorption, as well as the effect of pendant PEO on the lateral clustering behavior of nisin. Nisin adsorption was observed at the uncoated and F108-coated surfaces, but not at the F68-coated surfaces. Nisin showed greater resistance to elution by peptide-free buffer at the uncoated surface, and lateral rearrangement and clustering of adsorbed nisin was apparent only at the uncoated surface. We conclude peptide entrapment at the F108-coated surface is governed by a hydrophobic inner region of the PEO brush layer that is not sufficient for nisin entrapment in the case of the shorter PEO chains of the F68-coated surface.

Simple and robust approach for passivating and functionalizing surfaces for use in complex media

Pluronic is a popular triblock copolymer used as a surfactant to introduce hydrophilic coatings onto many different types of material surfaces, from engineering to biomedical applications. Unfortunately, this is limited in its ability to resist fouling from complex media (i.e., blood) and leaves the surface hard for further modification. Herein, we report a simple, yet robust approach for passivating and functionalizing surfaces based on zwitterionic poly(carboxybetaine) (PCB) based triblock copolymer, which can be directly applied to surfaces to prevent nonspecific protein adsorption from undiluted blood plasma, and to provide additional functionalities needed for the attachment of biomolecules. Several hydrophobic surfaces including polydimethylsiloxane, silanized silica, and self-assembled monolayers are tested to demonstrate its applicability to a wide range of systems. This approach provides a robust, convenient, and effective surface modification method for real-world applications from simple surface passivation to specific targeting in complex media.

Interaction between PEO-PPO-PEO copolymers and a hexapeptide in aqueous solutions

Interaction between PEO-PPO-PEO copolymers and a hexapeptide, growth hormone releasing peptide-6 (GHRP-6), was investigated by NMR to study the potential use of the copolymers in peptide drug delivery. (1)H NMR and nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) measurements determined that PO methyl protons interacted with methyl protons of the Ala moiety, aromatic protons of the Trp moiety, and some of the Phe aromatic protons. The Lys moiety and part of the Phe moiety entered the hydrophilic EO environment via hydrogen bonding. PEO-PPO-PEO copolymers and the peptide formed a complex in 1:1 stoichiometry. Binding constants between copolymers and GHRP-6 were determined, and it was indicated that the copolymers containing more EO and PO units will lead to greater affinity with the peptide. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) measurements confirmed the results of NMR experiments. This study indicates that PEO-PPO-PEO copolymers have great potential in delivering peptide drugs.

Detection of nisin and fibrinogen adsorption on poly(ethylene oxide) coated polyurethane surfaces by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS)

Stable, pendant polyethylene oxide (PEO) layers were formed on medical-grade Pellethane® and Tygon® polyurethane surfaces, by adsorption and gamma-irradiation of PEO-polybutadiene-PEO triblock surfactants. Coated and uncoated polyurethanes were challenged individually or sequentially with nisin (a small polypeptide with antimicrobial activity) and/or fibrinogen, and then analyzed with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS). Data reduction by robust principal components analysis (PCA) allowed detection of outliers, and distinguished adsorbed nisin and fibrinogen. Fibrinogen-contacted surfaces, with or without nisin, were very similar on uncoated polymer surfaces, consistent with nearly complete displacement or coverage of previously-adsorbed nisin by fibrinogen. In contrast, nisin-loaded PEO layers remained essentially unchanged upon challenge with fibrinogen, suggesting that the adsorbed nisin is stabilized within the pendant PEO layer, while the peptide-loaded PEO layer retains its ability to repel large proteins. Coatings of PEO loaded with therapeutic polypeptides on medical polymers have the potential to be used to produce anti-fouling and biofunctional surfaces for implantable or blood-contacting devices.

Nisin adsorption to polyethylene oxide layers and its resistance to elution in the presence of fibrinogen

The adsorption and elution of the antimicrobial peptide nisin at silanized silica surfaces coated to present pendant polyethylene oxide chains was detected in situ by zeta potential measurements. Silica microspheres were treated with trichlorovinylsilane to introduce hydrophobic vinyl groups, followed by self assembly of the polyethylene oxide-polypropylene oxide-polyethylene oxide (PEO-PPO-PEO) triblock surfactant Pluronic F108, or an F108 derivative with nitrilotriacetic acid end groups. Triblock-coated microspheres were gamma-irradiated to covalently stabilize the PPO-surface association. PEO layer stability was evaluated by triblock resistance to elution by SDS, and layer uniformity was evaluated by fibrinogen repulsion. Introduction of nisin to uncoated or triblock-coated microspheres produced a significant positive change in surface charge (zeta potential) as a result of adsorption of the cationic peptide. In sequential adsorption experiments, the introduction of fibrinogen to nisin-loaded triblock layers caused a decrease in zeta potential that was consistent with partial elution of nisin and/or preferential location of fibrinogen at the interface. This change was substantially more pronounced for uncoated than triblock-coated silica, indicating that the PEO layer offers enhanced resistance to nisin elution.

Staining proteins: a simple method to increase the sensitivity of ellipsometric measurements in adsorption studies

This communication describes a simple way to improve the sensitivity of spectroscopic ellipsometry, when applied to monitor the adsorption of proteins to solid surfaces. The method described herein is based on the reaction of a commercially available dye (Coomassie brilliant blue G) with the adsorbed proteins and the subsequent analysis by spectroscopic ellipsometry. In order to demonstrate the potential advantages of this method, the adsorption of bovine serum albumin to an antifouling coating was also investigated. According to our results, the modification with the dye significantly affects the optical properties of the adsorbed protein layer, which can be represented using a simple optical model (Lorentz). In general, the proposed modification increases the sensitivity of the detection by 2.5 ± 0.4-fold and enables the analysis of thin layers of adsorbed protein not obtainable by conventional methods. These results particularly reveal the importance of the proposed modification for the evaluation of low adsorbing substrates and antifouling coatings.

Nisin antimicrobial activity and structural characteristics at hydrophobic surfaces coated with the PEO-PPO-PEO triblock surfactant Pluronic F108

The antimicrobial peptide nisin has been observed to preferentially locate at surfaces coated with the poly[ethylene oxide]-poly[propylene oxide]-poly[ethylene oxide] (PEO-PPO-PEO) surfactant Pluronic F108, to an extent similar to its adsorption at uncoated, hydrophobic surfaces. In order to evaluate nisin function following its adsorption to surfaces presenting pendant PEO chains, the antimicrobial activity of nisin-loaded, F108-coated polystyrene microspheres and F108-coated polyurethane catheter segments was evaluated against the Gram-positive indicator strain, Pediococcus pentosaceus. The retained biological activity of these nisin-loaded layers was evaluated after incubation in the presence and absence of blood proteins, for contact periods up to one week. While an increase in serum protein concentration reduced the retained activity on both bare hydrophobic and F108-coated materials, F108-coated surfaces retained more antimicrobial activity than the uncoated surfaces. Circular dichroism spectroscopy experiments conducted with nisin in the presence of F108-coated and uncoated, silanized silica nanoparticles suggested that nisin experienced conformational rearrangement at a greater rate and to a greater extent on bare hydrophobic surfaces relative to F108-coated surfaces. These results support the notion that immobilized, pendant PEO chains confer some degree of conformational stability to nisin while also inhibiting its exchange by blood proteins.