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Kalra J, Baker J, Sun X, Kyle A, Minchinton A, Bally MB. Accumulation of liposomes in metastatic tumor sites is not necessary for anti-cancer drug efficacy. J Transl Med 2024; 22:621. [PMID: 38961395 PMCID: PMC11223361 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-05428-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The tumor microenvironment is profoundly heterogeneous particularly when comparing sites of metastases. Establishing the extent of this heterogeneity may provide guidance on how best to design lipid-based drug delivery systems to treat metastatic disease. Building on our previous research, the current study employs a murine model of metastatic cancer to explore the distribution of ~ 100 nm liposomes. METHODS Female NCr nude mice were inoculated with a fluorescently labeled, Her2/neu-positive, trastuzumab-resistant breast cancer cell line, JIMT-1mkate, either in the mammary fat pad to create an orthotopic tumor (OT), or via intracardiac injection (IC) to establish tumors throughout the body. Animals were dosed with fluorescent and radio-labeled liposomes. In vivo and ex vivo fluorescent imaging was used to track liposome distribution over a period of 48 h. Liposome distribution in orthotopic tumors was compared to sites of tumor growth that arose following IC injection. RESULTS A significant amount of inter-vessel heterogeneity for DiR distribution was observed, with most tumor blood vessels showing little to no presence of the DiR-labelled liposomes. Further, there was limited extravascular distribution of DiR liposomes in the perivascular regions around DiR-positive vessels. While all OT tumors contained at least some DiR-positive vessels, many metastases had very little or none. Despite the apparent limited distribution of liposomes within metastases, two liposomal drug formulations, Irinophore C and Doxil, showed similar efficacy for both the OT and IC JIMT-1mkate models. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that liposomal formulations achieve therapeutic benefits through mechanisms that extend beyond the enhanced permeability and retention effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Kalra
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Jennifer Baker
- Integrative Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - XuXin Sun
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alastair Kyle
- Integrative Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Andrew Minchinton
- Integrative Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Marcel B Bally
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- NanoMedicine Innovation Network, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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2
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Gao H, Chen N, Sun L, Sheng D, Zhong Y, Huang M, Yu C, Yang X, Hao Y, Chen S, Shao Z, Chen J. Time-programmed release of curcumin and Zn 2+ from multi-layered RSF coating modified PET graft for improvement of graft-host integration. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 272:132830. [PMID: 38825264 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Artificial graft serves as the primary grafts used in the clinical management of sports-related injuries. Until now, optimizing its graft-host integration remains a great challenge due to the excessive inflammatory response during the inflammatory phase, coupled with an absence of tissue-inductive capacity during the regeneration phase. Here, a multi-layered regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) coating loaded with curcumin (Cur) and Zn2+ on the surface of the PET grafts (Cur@Zn2+@PET) was designed and fabricated for providing time-matched regulation specifically tailored to address issues arising at both inflammatory and regeneration phases, respectively. The release of Cur and Zn2+ from the Cur@Zn2+@PET followed a time-programmed pattern in vitro. Specifically, cellular assays revealed that Cur@Zn2+@PET initially released Cur during the inflammatory phase, thereby markedly inhibit the expression of inflammatory cytokines TNF-a and IL-1β. Meanwhile, a significant release of Zn2+ was major part during the regeneration phase, serving to induce the osteogenic differentiation of rBMSC. Furthermore, rat model of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) showed that through time-programmed drug release, Cur@Zn2+@PET could suppress the formation of fibrous interface (FI) caused by inflammatory response, combined with significant new bone (NB) formation during regeneration phase. Consequently, the implementation of the Cur@Zn2+@PET characterized by its time-programmed release patterns hold considerable promise for improving graft-host integration for sports-related injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Gao
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Ni Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Luyi Sun
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Dandan Sheng
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Yuting Zhong
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Mingru Huang
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Chengxuan Yu
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Xing Yang
- Department of orthopedics, Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou 215500, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuefeng Hao
- Department of orthopedics, Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou 215500, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shiyi Chen
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China.
| | - Zhengzhong Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Jun Chen
- Sports Medicine Institute of Fudan University, Department of Sports Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, China.
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Sun XX, Nosrati Z, Ko J, Lee CM, Bennewith KL, Bally MB. Induced Vascular Normalization-Can One Force Tumors to Surrender to a Better Microenvironment? Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2022. [PMID: 37631236 PMCID: PMC10458586 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy has changed the way many cancers are being treated. Researchers in the field of immunotherapy and tumor immunology are investigating similar questions: How can the positive benefits achieved with immunotherapies be enhanced? Can this be achieved through combinations with other agents and if so, which ones? In our view, there is an urgent need to improve immunotherapy to make further gains in the overall survival for those patients that should benefit from immunotherapy. While numerous different approaches are being considered, our team believes that drug delivery methods along with appropriately selected small-molecule drugs and drug candidates could help reach the goal of doubling the overall survival rate that is seen in some patients that are given immunotherapeutics. This review article is prepared to address how immunotherapies should be combined with a second treatment using an approach that could realize therapeutic gains 10 years from now. For context, an overview of immunotherapy and cancer angiogenesis is provided. The major targets in angiogenesis that have modulatory effects on the tumor microenvironment and immune cells are highlighted. A combination approach that, for us, has the greatest potential for success involves treatments that will normalize the tumor's blood vessel structure and alter the immune microenvironment to support the action of immunotherapeutics. So, this is reviewed as well. Our focus is to provide an insight into some strategies that will engender vascular normalization that may be better than previously described approaches. The potential for drug delivery systems to promote tumor blood vessel normalization is considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Xin Sun
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada; (Z.N.); (J.K.); (C.-M.L.); (K.L.B.); (M.B.B.)
- Interdisciplinary Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada
- NanoMedicines Innovation Network, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Cuprous Pharmaceuticals, Vancouver, BC V6N 3P8, Canada
| | - Zeynab Nosrati
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada; (Z.N.); (J.K.); (C.-M.L.); (K.L.B.); (M.B.B.)
- Interdisciplinary Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada
- Cuprous Pharmaceuticals, Vancouver, BC V6N 3P8, Canada
| | - Janell Ko
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada; (Z.N.); (J.K.); (C.-M.L.); (K.L.B.); (M.B.B.)
| | - Che-Min Lee
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada; (Z.N.); (J.K.); (C.-M.L.); (K.L.B.); (M.B.B.)
- Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Kevin L. Bennewith
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada; (Z.N.); (J.K.); (C.-M.L.); (K.L.B.); (M.B.B.)
- Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Marcel B. Bally
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada; (Z.N.); (J.K.); (C.-M.L.); (K.L.B.); (M.B.B.)
- Interdisciplinary Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada
- NanoMedicines Innovation Network, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Cuprous Pharmaceuticals, Vancouver, BC V6N 3P8, Canada
- Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Swetha KL, Maravajjala KS, Li SD, Singh MS, Roy A. Breaking the niche: multidimensional nanotherapeutics for tumor microenvironment modulation. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2023; 13:105-134. [PMID: 35697894 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01194-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Most of the current antitumor therapeutics were developed targeting the cancer cells only. Unfortunately, in the majority of tumors, this single-dimensional therapy is found to be ineffective. Advanced research has shown that cancer is a multicellular disorder. The tumor microenvironment (TME), which is made by a complex network of the bulk tumor cells and other supporting cells, plays a crucial role in tumor progression. Understanding the importance of the TME in tumor growth, different treatment modalities have been developed targeting these supporting cells. Recent clinical results suggest that simultaneously targeting multiple components of the tumor ecosystem with drug combinations can be highly effective. This type of "multidimensional" therapy has a high potential for cancer treatment. However, tumor-specific delivery of such multi-drug combinations remains a challenge. Nanomedicine could be utilized for the tumor-targeted delivery of such multidimensional therapeutics. In this review, we first give a brief overview of the major components of TME. We then highlight the latest developments in nanoparticle-based combination therapies, where one drug targets cancer cells and other drug targets tumor-supporting components in the TME for a synergistic effect. We include the latest preclinical and clinical studies and discuss innovative nanoparticle-mediated targeting strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Laxmi Swetha
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Vidya Vihar, Pilani, Rajasthan, 333031, India
| | - Kavya Sree Maravajjala
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Vidya Vihar, Pilani, Rajasthan, 333031, India
| | - Shyh-Dar Li
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, 2405 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Manu Smriti Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Bennett University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, 201310, India. .,Center of Excellence for Nanosensors and Nanomedicine, Bennett University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, 201310, India.
| | - Aniruddha Roy
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Vidya Vihar, Pilani, Rajasthan, 333031, India.
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Wang Z, Li J, Lin G, He Z, Wang Y. Metal complex-based liposomes: Applications and prospects in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. J Control Release 2022; 348:1066-1088. [PMID: 35718211 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Metal complexes are of increasing interest as pharmaceutical agents in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics, while some of them suffer from issues such as limited water solubility and severe systemic toxicity. These drawbacks severely hampered their efficacy and clinical applications. Liposomes hold promise as delivery vehicles for constructing metal complex-based liposomes to maximize the therapeutic efficacy and minimize the side effects of metal complexes. This review provides an overview on the latest advances of metal complex-based liposomal delivery systems. First, the development of metal complex-mediated liposomal encapsulation is briefly introduced. Next, applications of metal complex-based liposomes in a variety of fields are overviewed, where drug delivery, cancer imaging (single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)), and cancer therapy (chemotherapy, phototherapy, and radiotherapy) were involved. Moreover, the potential toxicity, action of toxic mechanisms, immunological effects of metal complexes as well as the advantages of metal complex-liposomes in this content are also discussed. In the end, the future expectations and challenges of metal complex-based liposomes in clinical cancer therapy are tentatively proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaomeng Wang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
| | - Jinbo Li
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
| | - Guimei Lin
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University, Jinan 250000, PR China
| | - Zhonggui He
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China.
| | - Yongjun Wang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China.
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6
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Wu D, Zhu L, Li Y, Wang H, Xu S, Zhang X, Wu R, Yang G. Superparamagnetic chitosan nanocomplexes for colorectal tumor-targeted delivery of irinotecan. Int J Pharm 2020; 584:119394. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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7
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Ickenstein LM, Garidel P. Lipid-based nanoparticle formulations for small molecules and RNA drugs. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2020; 16:1205-1226. [PMID: 31530041 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2019.1669558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Liposomes and lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) effectively deliver cargo molecules to specific tissues, cells, and cellular compartments. Patients benefit from these nanoparticle formulations by altered pharmacokinetic properties, higher efficacy, or reduced side effects. While liposomes are an established delivery option for small molecules, Onpattro® (Sanofi Genzyme, Cambridge, MA) is the first commercially available LNP formulation of a small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA). Areas covered: This review article summarizes key features of liposomal formulations for small molecule drugs and LNP formulations for RNA therapeutics. We describe liposomal formulations that are commercially available or in late-stage clinical development and the most promising LNP formulations for ASOs, siRNAs, saRNA, and mRNA therapeutics. Expert opinion: Similar to liposomes, LNPs for RNA therapeutics have matured but still possess a niche application status. RNA therapeutics, however, bear an immense hope for difficult to treat diseases and fuel the imagination for further applications of RNA drugs. LNPs face similar challenges as liposomes including limitations in biodistribution, the risk to provoke immune responses, and other toxicities. However, since properties of RNA molecules within the same group are very similar, the entire class of therapeutic molecules would benefit from improvements in a few key parameters of the delivery technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludger M Ickenstein
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Innovation Unit, Pharmaceutical Development Biologicals , Biberach an der Riss , Germany
| | - Patrick Garidel
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Innovation Unit, Pharmaceutical Development Biologicals , Biberach an der Riss , Germany
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8
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Gilabert-Oriol R, Ryan GM, Leung AWY, Firmino NS, Bennewith KL, Bally MB. Liposomal Formulations to Modulate the Tumour Microenvironment and Antitumour Immune Response. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19102922. [PMID: 30261606 PMCID: PMC6213379 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19102922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumours are complex systems of genetically diverse malignant cells that proliferate in the presence of a heterogeneous microenvironment consisting of host derived microvasculature, stromal, and immune cells. The components of the tumour microenvironment (TME) communicate with each other and with cancer cells, to regulate cellular processes that can inhibit, as well as enhance, tumour growth. Therapeutic strategies have been developed to modulate the TME and cancer-associated immune response. However, modulating compounds are often insoluble (aqueous solubility of less than 1 mg/mL) and have suboptimal pharmacokinetics that prevent therapeutically relevant drug concentrations from reaching the appropriate sites within the tumour. Nanomedicines and, in particular, liposomal formulations of relevant drug candidates, define clinically meaningful drug delivery systems that have the potential to ensure that the right drug candidate is delivered to the right area within tumours at the right time. Following encapsulation in liposomes, drug candidates often display extended plasma half-lives, higher plasma concentrations and may accumulate directly in the tumour tissue. Liposomes can normalise the tumour blood vessel structure and enhance the immunogenicity of tumour cell death; relatively unrecognised impacts associated with using liposomal formulations. This review describes liposomal formulations that affect components of the TME. A focus is placed on formulations which are approved for use in the clinic. The concept of tumour immunogenicity, and how liposomes may enhance radiation and chemotherapy-induced immunogenic cell death (ICD), is discussed. Liposomes are currently an indispensable tool in the treatment of cancer, and their contribution to cancer therapy may gain even further importance by incorporating modulators of the TME and the cancer-associated immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Gilabert-Oriol
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada.
| | - Gemma M Ryan
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada.
| | - Ada W Y Leung
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada.
- Cuprous Pharmaceuticals Inc., Vancouver, BC V6N 3P8, Canada.
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada.
| | - Natalie S Firmino
- Department of Integrative Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5, Canada.
| | - Kevin L Bennewith
- Department of Integrative Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5, Canada.
| | - Marcel B Bally
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada.
- Cuprous Pharmaceuticals Inc., Vancouver, BC V6N 3P8, Canada.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5, Canada.
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Centre for Drug Research and Development, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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Chen M, Liang X, Gao C, Zhao R, Zhang N, Wang S, Chen W, Zhao B, Wang J, Dai Z. Ultrasound Triggered Conversion of Porphyrin/Camptothecin-Fluoroxyuridine Triad Microbubbles into Nanoparticles Overcomes Multidrug Resistance in Colorectal Cancer. ACS NANO 2018; 12:7312-7326. [PMID: 29901986 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b03674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance remains one of the main obstacles to efficient chemotherapy of colorectal cancer. Herein, an efficient combination therapeutic strategy is proposed based on porphyrin/camptothecin-floxuridine triad microbubbles (PCF-MBs) with high drug loading contents, which own highly stable co-delivery drug combinations and no premature release. The triad PCF-MBs can act not only as a contrast agent for ultrasound (US)/fluorescence bimodal imaging but also a multimodal therapeutic agent for synergistic chemo-photodynamic combination therapy. Upon local ultrasound exposure under the guidance of ultrasound imaging, in situ conversion of PCF-MBs into porphyrin/camptothecin-floxuridine nanoparticles (PCF-NPs) leads to high accumulation of chemo-drugs and photosensitizer in tumors due to the induced high permeability of the capillary wall and cell membrane temporarily via sonoporation effect, greatly reducing the risk of systemic exposure. Most importantly, it was found that the PCF-MB-mediated photodynamic therapy could significantly reduce the expression of adenosine-triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette subfamily G member 2 (ABCG2), which is responsible for the drug resistance in chemotherapy, resulting in a prominent intracellular camptothecin increase. In vivo experiments revealed that the PCF-MBs in combination with ultrasound and laser irradiation could achieve a 90% tumor inhibition rate of HT-29 cancer with no recurrence. Therefore, such triad PCF-MB-based combination therapeutic strategy shows great promise for overcoming drug resistance of colorectal cancer and other cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaolong Liang
- Department of Ultrasound , Peking University Third Hospital , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chuang Gao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , People's Republic of China
| | - Ranran Zhao
- Department of Ultrasound , Peking University Third Hospital , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Nisi Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , People's Republic of China
| | - Shumin Wang
- Department of Ultrasound , Peking University Third Hospital , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Wen Chen
- Department of Ultrasound , Peking University Third Hospital , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Zhao
- Department of Ultrasound , Peking University Third Hospital , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Jinrui Wang
- Department of Ultrasound , Peking University Third Hospital , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhifei Dai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , People's Republic of China
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10
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Casadó A, Mora M, Sagristá ML, Rello-Varona S, Acedo P, Stockert JC, Cañete M, Villanueva A. Improved selectivity and cytotoxic effects of irinotecan via liposomal delivery: A comparative study on Hs68 and HeLa cells. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 109:65-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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11
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Ojha T, Pathak V, Shi Y, Hennink WE, Moonen CTW, Storm G, Kiessling F, Lammers T. Pharmacological and physical vessel modulation strategies to improve EPR-mediated drug targeting to tumors. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 119:44-60. [PMID: 28697952 PMCID: PMC5919100 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The performance of nanomedicine formulations depends on the Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect. Prototypic nanomedicine-based drug delivery systems, such as liposomes, polymers and micelles, aim to exploit the EPR effect to accumulate at pathological sites, to thereby improve the balance between drug efficacy and toxicity. Thus far, however, tumor-targeted nanomedicines have not yet managed to achieve convincing therapeutic results, at least not in large cohorts of patients. This is likely mostly due to high inter- and intra-patient heterogeneity in EPR. Besides developing (imaging) biomarkers to monitor and predict EPR, another strategy to address this heterogeneity is the establishment of vessel modulation strategies to homogenize and improve EPR. Over the years, several pharmacological and physical co-treatments have been evaluated to improve EPR-mediated tumor targeting. These include pharmacological strategies, such as vessel permeabilization, normalization, disruption and promotion, as well as physical EPR enhancement via hyperthermia, radiotherapy, sonoporation and phototherapy. In the present manuscript, we summarize exemplary studies showing that pharmacological and physical vessel modulation strategies can be used to improve tumor-targeted drug delivery, and we discuss how these advanced combination regimens can be optimally employed to enhance the (pre-) clinical performance of tumor-targeted nanomedicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarun Ojha
- Department of Nanomedicines and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging (ExMI), RWTH Aachen University Clinic, 52074 Aachen, Germany; Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Vertika Pathak
- Department of Nanomedicines and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging (ExMI), RWTH Aachen University Clinic, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Yang Shi
- Department of Nanomedicines and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging (ExMI), RWTH Aachen University Clinic, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Wim E Hennink
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Chrit T W Moonen
- Imaging division, University Medical Center Utrecht (UMCU), Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gert Storm
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Department of Nanomedicines and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging (ExMI), RWTH Aachen University Clinic, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Twan Lammers
- Department of Nanomedicines and Theranostics, Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging (ExMI), RWTH Aachen University Clinic, 52074 Aachen, Germany; Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Each month, subscribers to The Formulary Monograph Service receive 5 to 6 well-documented monographs on drugs that are newly released or are in late phase 3 trials. The monographs are targeted to Pharmacy & Therapeutics Committees. Subscribers also receive monthly 1-page summary monographs on agents that are useful for agendas and pharmacy/nursing in-services. A comprehensive target drug utilization evaluation/medication use evaluation (DUE/MUE) is also provided each month. With a subscription, the monographs are are available online to subscribers. Monographs can be customized to meet the needs of a facility. Through the cooperation of The Formulary, Hospital Pharmacy publishes selected reviews in this column. For more information about The Formulary Monograph Service, contact Wolters Kluwer customer service at 866-397-3433. The February 2017 monograph topics are bezlotoxumab, binimetinib, broadalumab, deuterabenazine, prasterone vaginal, and valbenazine. The DUE is on bezlotoxumab.
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Pranatharthiharan S, Patel MD, Malshe VC, Pujari V, Gorakshakar A, Madkaikar M, Ghosh K, Devarajan PV. Asialoglycoprotein receptor targeted delivery of doxorubicin nanoparticles for hepatocellular carcinoma. Drug Deliv 2017; 24:20-29. [PMID: 28155331 PMCID: PMC8244555 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2016.1225856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We report asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR)-targeted doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox) nanoparticles (NPs) for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Polyethylene sebacate (PES)-Gantrez® AN 119 Dox NPs of average size 220 nm with PDI < 0.62 and ∼20% Dox loading were prepared by modified nanoprecipitation. ASGPR ligands, pullulan (Pul), arabinogalactan (AGn), and the combination (Pul-AGn), were anchored by adsorption. Ligand anchoring enabled high liver uptake with a remarkable hepatocyte:nonparenchymal cell ratio of 85:15. Furthermore, Pul-AGn NPs exhibited an additive effect implying incredibly high hepatocyte accumulation. Galactose-mediated competitive inhibition confirmed ASGPR-mediated uptake of ligand-anchored NPs in HepG2 cell lines. Subacute toxicity in rats confirmed the safety of the NP groups. However, histopathological evaluation suggested mild renal toxicity of AGn. Pul NPs revealed sustained reduction in tumor volume in PLC/PRF/5 liver tumor-bearing Nod/Scid mice up to 46 days. Extensive tumor necrosis, reduced collagen content, reduction in the HCC biomarker serum α-fetoprotein (p < 0.05), a mitotic index of 1.135 (day 46), and tumor treated/tumor control (T/C) values of <0.42 signified superior efficacy of Pul NPs. Furthermore, weight gain in the NP groups, and no histopathological alterations indicated that they were well tolerated by the mice. The high efficacy coupled with greater safety portrayed Pul Dox NPs as a promising nanocarrier for improved therapy of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhya Pranatharthiharan
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology , Institute of Chemical Technology (Deemed University, Elite Status) , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India and
| | - Mitesh D Patel
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology , Institute of Chemical Technology (Deemed University, Elite Status) , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India and
| | - Vinod C Malshe
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology , Institute of Chemical Technology (Deemed University, Elite Status) , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India and
| | - Vaishali Pujari
- b National Institute of Immunohaematology , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India
| | - Ajit Gorakshakar
- b National Institute of Immunohaematology , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India
| | - Manisha Madkaikar
- b National Institute of Immunohaematology , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India
| | - Kanjaksha Ghosh
- b National Institute of Immunohaematology , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India
| | - Padma V Devarajan
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology , Institute of Chemical Technology (Deemed University, Elite Status) , Mumbai , Maharashtra , India and
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14
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Leung AWY, de Silva T, Bally MB, Lockwood WW. Synthetic lethality in lung cancer and translation to clinical therapies. Mol Cancer 2016; 15:61. [PMID: 27686855 PMCID: PMC5041331 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-016-0546-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is a heterogeneous disease consisting of multiple histological subtypes each driven by unique genetic alterations. Despite the development of targeted therapies that inhibit the oncogenic mutations driving a subset of lung cancer cases, there is a paucity of effective treatments for the majority of lung cancer patients and new strategies are urgently needed. In recent years, the concept of synthetic lethality has been established as an effective approach for discovering novel cancer-specific targets as well as a method to improve the efficacy of existing drugs which provide partial but insufficient benefits for patients. In this review, we discuss the concept of synthetic lethality, the various types of synthetic lethal interactions in the context of oncology and the approaches used to identify these interactions, including recent advances that have transformed the ability to discover novel synthetic lethal combinations on a global scale. Lastly, we describe the specific synthetic lethal interactions identified in lung cancer to date and explore the pharmacological challenges and considerations in translating these discoveries to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada W. Y. Leung
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Centre, 675 West 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3 Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Rm. G227-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5 Canada
| | - Tanya de Silva
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Rm. G227-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5 Canada
- Integrative Oncology, BC Cancer Research Centre, 675 West 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3 Canada
| | - Marcel B. Bally
- Experimental Therapeutics, BC Cancer Research Centre, 675 West 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3 Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Rm. G227-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5 Canada
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2405 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3 Canada
- Centre for Drug Research and Development, 2405 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3 Canada
| | - William W. Lockwood
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Rm. G227-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5 Canada
- Integrative Oncology, BC Cancer Research Centre, 675 West 10th Ave, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3 Canada
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15
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Ur Rehman SS, Lim K, Wang-Gillam A. Nanoliposomal irinotecan plus fluorouracil and folinic acid: a new treatment option in metastatic pancreatic cancer. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2016; 16:485-92. [PMID: 27043737 DOI: 10.1080/14737140.2016.1174581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains a deadly disease with half of patients diagnosed in the metastatic setting. Until recently, patients after progression on front-line gemcitabine-based regimen had no standard second-line option, although flouropyrimidine-based regimens were frequently used in this setting. Encapsulation of chemotherapeutics in liposomal formulation is an effective way of prolonging drug deposition thereby enhancing cytotoxic efficacy. In a large phase III randomized trial on metastatic PDAC patients who progressed after gemcitabine-based chemotherapy, a novel nanoliposome-encapsulated irinotecan (PEP02, MM-398, nal-IRI, Onivyde, Merrimack, Boston, US) plus fluorouracil and folinic acid demonstrated a significant survival advantage compared to fluorouracil and folinic acid alone. This pivotal study led to the recent FDA approval of nanoliposomal irinotecan in patients with metastatic PDAC. In this article, we will review the literature regarding existing treatment options for metastatic PDAC, focusing specifically on nanoliposomal irinotecan in the clinical setting and its future implication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sana Saif Ur Rehman
- a Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine , Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis , MO , USA
| | - Kian Lim
- a Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine , Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis , MO , USA.,b Siteman Cancer Center , Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis , MO , USA
| | - Andrea Wang-Gillam
- a Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine , Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis , MO , USA.,b Siteman Cancer Center , Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis , MO , USA
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16
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Preparation and Characterization of Irinotecan Loaded Cross-Linked Bovine Serum Albumin Beads for Liver Cancer Chemoembolization Therapy. INT J POLYM SCI 2016. [DOI: 10.1155/2016/9651486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, a novel temporary embolization agent for transarterial chemoembolization of liver cancer was developed and tested. The Irinotecan loaded bovine serum albumin (BSA) beads were tried to be used as embolic agent of liver cancer therapy. BSA beads were prepared by a water-in-oil emulsion solvent diffusion method in soya oil and Span 85 was used as the emulsifier. The obtained BSA beads were able to swell 2.37-fold comparing to dried beads. Depending on the equilibrium swelling process, the Irinotecan was loaded with 9.8% total drug concentration and tested. In vitro drug release studies showed that a burst release of Irinotecan was achieved. Eventually BSA beads were completely degraded in a few weeks. CCK-8 assay demonstrated that BSA beads showed no cytotoxicity against human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and the Irinotecan loaded BSA beads showed comparable cytotoxicity against Hep G2, a human liver carcinoma cell line, as the traditional Irinotecan. In a rabbit model, it was found that BSA beads can successfully be transferred to liver and provide occlusion of small arteries. The present investigation suggested that the BSA beads are promising drug carriers and can potentially be used as temporary embolization agents in interventional oncology.
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You X, Kang Y, Hollett G, Chen X, Zhao W, Gu Z, Wu J. Polymeric nanoparticles for colon cancer therapy: overview and perspectives. J Mater Chem B 2016; 4:7779-7792. [DOI: 10.1039/c6tb01925k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third-most common malignant tumour and is associated with high morbidity and mortality worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinru You
- School of Engineering
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Yang Kang
- Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization
- Chengdu Institute of Biology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chengdu 610041
- China
| | - Geoffrey Hollett
- Materials Science and Engineering Program
- University of California San Diego
- La Jolla
- USA
| | - Xing Chen
- School of Engineering
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering
- Ministry of Education
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Zhipeng Gu
- School of Engineering
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Jun Wu
- School of Engineering
- Sun Yat-sen University
- Guangzhou
- P. R. China
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18
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Verreault M, Wehbe M, Strutt D, Masin D, Anantha M, Walker D, Chu F, Backstrom I, Kalra J, Waterhouse D, Yapp DT, Bally MB. Determination of an optimal dosing schedule for combining Irinophore C™ and temozolomide in an orthotopic model of glioblastoma. J Control Release 2015; 220:348-357. [PMID: 26528901 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.10.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Our laboratory reported that Irinophore C™ (IrC™; a lipid-based nanoparticulate formulation of irinotecan) is effective against an orthotopic model of glioblastoma (GBM) and that treatment with IrC™ was associated with vascular normalization within the tumor. Here, the therapeutic effects of IrC™ when used in combination with temozolomide (TMZ) in concurrent and sequential treatment schedules were tested. It was anticipated that IrC™ engendered vascular normalization would increase the delivery of TMZ to the tumor and that this would be reflected by improved treatment outcomes. The approach compared equally efficacious doses of irinotecan (IRN; 50 mg/kg) and IrC™ (25 mg/kg) in order to determine if there was a unique advantage achieved when combining TMZ with IrC™. The TMZ sensitive U251MG(O) cell line (null expression of O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT)) modified to express the fluorescent protein mKate2 was inoculated orthotopically into NOD.CB17-SCID mice and treatment was initiated 14 days later. Our results demonstrated that IrC™ and TMZ administered concurrently resulted in optimal treatment outcomes, with 50% long term survivors (>180 days) in comparison to 17% long term survivors in animals treated with IRN and TMZ or TMZ alone. Indeed, the different treatments resulted in a 353%, 222% and 280% increase in median survival time (MST) compared to untreated animals for, respectively, IrC™ combined with TMZ, IRN combined with TMZ, and TMZ alone. When TMZ was administered after completion of IRN or IrC™ dosing, an increase in median survival time of 167-174% was observed compared to untreated animals and of 67% and 74%, respectively, when IRN (50 mg/kg) and IrC™ (25mg/kg) were given as single agents. We confirmed in these studies that after completion of the Q7D×3 dosing of IrC™, but not IRN, the tumor-associated vascular was normalized as compared to untreated tumors. Specifically, reductions in the fraction of collagen IV-free CD31 staining (p<0.05) and reductions in tumor vessel diameter were observed in tumors from IrC™-treated animals when compared to tumors from untreated or IRN treated animals. Analysis by transmission electron microscopy of the ultra-structure of tumors from IrC™-treated and untreated animals revealed that tumor-associated vessels from treated animals were smaller, more organized and exhibited a morphology comparable to normal blood vessels. In conclusion, optimal treatment outcomes were achieved when IrC™ and TMZ were administered concurrently, whereas IrC™ followed by TMZ treatment given sequentially did not confer any therapeutic advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Verreault
- Brain and Spine Institute Research Center, 47 Bd de l'Hopital, Paris, 75013, France.
| | - M Wehbe
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2146 East Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z3, BC, Canada
| | - D Strutt
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada
| | - D Masin
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada
| | - M Anantha
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada
| | - D Walker
- Ultrastructural Imaging, UBC James Hogg Research Laboratories (iCAPTURE), Providence Heart and Lung Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, Rm 166, 1081 Burrard St, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - F Chu
- Ultrastructural Imaging, UBC James Hogg Research Laboratories (iCAPTURE), Providence Heart and Lung Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, Rm 166, 1081 Burrard St, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - I Backstrom
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada
| | - J Kalra
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada
| | - D Waterhouse
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada
| | - D T Yapp
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2146 East Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z3, BC, Canada
| | - M B Bally
- Experimental Therapeutics, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, V5Z 1L3, BC, Canada; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2146 East Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z3, BC, Canada; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, 2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver V6T 2B5, BC, Canada; Center for Drug Research and Development, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, BC, Canada.
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