A tiny visual system — retinula axons and visual neuropils of Neobisium carcinoides (Hermann, 1804) (Chelicerata, Arachnida, Pseudoscorpiones)

Locomotion in the pseudoscorpion Chelifer cancroides - forward, backward and upside down walking in an eight-legged arthropod

While insect locomotion has been intensively studied, there are comparably few studies investigating octopedal walking behaviour, and very little is known about pseudoscorpions in particular. Therefore, we performed an extensive locomotion analysis during forward, backward and upside down walking in the cosmopolitan pseudoscorpion Chelifer cancroides. During forward locomotion, we observed C. cancroides to freeze locomotion frequently for short time periods. These microstops were barely visible to the naked eye with a duration of 100-200 ms. Our locomotion analysis revealed that C. cancroides performs a statically stable and highly coordinated alternating tetrapod gait during forward and backward walking, with almost complete inversion of the tetrapod schemes, but no rigidly fixed leg coordination during upside down walks with low walking speeds up to 4 body lengths per second. Highest speeds (up to 17 body lengths per second), mainly achieved by consistent leg coordination and strong phase shifts, were observed during backward locomotion (escape behaviour), while forward walking was characterised by lower speeds and phase shifts around 10% between two loosely coupled leg groups within one tetrapod. That is, during the movement of one tetrapod group, the last and the third leg are almost synchronous in their swing phases, as are the second and the first leg. A special role of the second leg pair was demonstrated, probably mainly for stability reasons and related to the large pedipalps.

The visual pathway in sea spiders (Pycnogonida) displays a simple serial layout with similarities to the median eye pathway in horseshoe crabs

BACKGROUND

Phylogenomic studies over the past two decades have consolidated the major branches of the arthropod tree of life. However, especially within the Chelicerata (spiders, scorpions, and kin), interrelationships of the constituent taxa remain controversial. While sea spiders (Pycnogonida) are firmly established as sister group of all other extant representatives (Euchelicerata), euchelicerate phylogeny itself is still contested. One key issue concerns the marine horseshoe crabs (Xiphosura), which recent studies recover either as sister group of terrestrial Arachnida or nested within the latter, with significant impact on postulated terrestrialization scenarios and long-standing paradigms of ancestral chelicerate traits. In potential support of a nested placement, previous neuroanatomical studies highlighted similarities in the visual pathway of xiphosurans and some arachnopulmonates (scorpions, whip scorpions, whip spiders). However, contradictory descriptions of the pycnogonid visual system hamper outgroup comparison and thus character polarization.

RESULTS

To advance the understanding of the pycnogonid brain and its sense organs with the aim of elucidating chelicerate visual system evolution, a wide range of families were studied using a combination of micro-computed X-ray tomography, histology, dye tracing, and immunolabeling of tubulin, the neuropil marker synapsin, and several neuroactive substances (including histamine, serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase, and orcokinin). Contrary to previous descriptions, the visual system displays a serial layout with only one first-order visual neuropil connected to a bilayered arcuate body by catecholaminergic interneurons. Fluorescent dye tracing reveals a previously reported second visual neuropil as the target of axons from the lateral sense organ instead of the eyes.

CONCLUSIONS

Ground pattern reconstruction reveals remarkable neuroanatomical stasis in the pycnogonid visual system since the Ordovician or even earlier. Its conserved layout exhibits similarities to the median eye pathway in euchelicerates, especially in xiphosurans, with which pycnogonids share two median eye pairs that differentiate consecutively during development and target one visual neuropil upstream of the arcuate body. Given multiple losses of median and/or lateral eyes in chelicerates, and the tightly linked reduction of visual processing centers, interconnections between median and lateral visual neuropils in xiphosurans and arachnopulmonates are critically discussed, representing a plausible ancestral condition of taxa that have retained both eye types.

Anatomy of the Nervous System in Chelifer cancroides (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones) with a Distinct Sensory Pathway Associated with the Pedipalps

Simple Summary

Most arthropods (uniting animals such as the chelicerates, e.g., spiders and their kin, as well as millipedes, centipedes, crustaceans, and insects) have distinct sensory appendages at the second head segment, the so-called antennae. The Arachnida (e.g., spiders and scorpions) do not possess antennae, but have evolved highly specialized sensory organs on different body regions. However, very limited information is available concerning pseudoscorpions (false scorpions). These animals do not seem to possess such specialized structures, but show dominant, multifunctional appendages prior to the first walking leg, called pedipalps. Here, we investigate the neuronal pathway of these structures as well as general aspects of the nervous system. We describe new details of typical arthropod brain compartments, such as the arcuate body and a comparatively small mushroom body. Neurons associated with the pedipalps terminate in two regions in the central nervous system of characteristic arrangement: a glomerular and a layered center, which we interpret as a chemo- and a mechanosensory center, respectively. The centers, which fulfill the same function in other animals, show a similar arrangement. These similarities in the sensory systems of different evolutionary origin have to be interpreted as functional prerequisites. Identifying these similarities helps to understand the general functionality of sensory systems, not only within arthropods.

Abstract

Many arachnid taxa have evolved unique, highly specialized sensory structures such as antenniform legs in Amblypygi (whip spiders), for instance, or mesosomal pectines in scorpions. Knowledge of the neuroanatomy as well as functional aspects of these sensory organs is rather scarce, especially in comparison to other arthropod clades. In pseudoscorpions, no special sensory structures have been discovered so far. Nevertheless, these animals possess dominant, multifunctional pedipalps, which are good candidates for being the primary sensory appendages. However, only little is known about the anatomy of the nervous system and the projection pattern of pedipalpal afferents in this taxon. By using immunofluorescent labeling of neuronal structures as well as lipophilic dye labeling of pedipalpal pathways, we identified the arcuate body, as well as a comparatively small mushroom body, the latter showing some similarities to that of Solifugae (sun spiders and camel spiders). Furthermore, afferents from the pedipalps terminate in a glomerular and a layered neuropil. Due to the innervation pattern and structural appearance, we conclude that these neuropils are the first integration centers of the chemosensory and mechanosensory afferents. Within Arthropoda, but also other invertebrates or even vertebrates, sensory structures show rather similar neuronal arrangement. Thus, these similarities in the sensory systems of different evolutionary origin have to be interpreted as functional prerequisites of the respective modality.

Outsourcing a visual neuropil - The central visual system of the median eyes of Galeodes granti Pocock, 1903 (Arachnida: Solifugae)

Only a few studies have examined the central visual system of Solifugae until now. To get new insights suitable for phylogenetic analysis we studied the R-cell (or retinula cell) projections and visual neuropils of Galeodes granti using various methods. G. granti possesses large median eyes and rudimentary lateral eyes. In this study, only the R-cells and neuropils of the median eyes were successfully stained. The R-cells terminate in two distinct visual neuropils. The first neuropil is located externally to the protocerebrum directly below the retina, the second neuropil lies in the cell body rind of the protocerebrum, and immediately adjacent is the arcuate body. This layout of the median eye visual system differs from Arachnopulmonata (Scorpiones + Tetrapulmonata). However, there are several similarities with Opiliones. In both, (1) the R-cells are connected to a first and second visual neuropil and not to any other region of the brain, (2) the first neuropil is not embedded in the cell body rind of the protocerebrum, it is rather external to the protocerebrum, (3) the second visual neuropil is embedded in the cell body rind, and (4) the second neuropil abuts the arcuate body. These findings may provide important new characters for the discussion on arachnid phylogeny.

The visual system of Thelyphonida (whip scorpions): Support for Arachnopulmonata

Only a few studies have examined the central visual system of Thelyphonida (whip scorpions) until now. To obtain new insights suitable for phylogenetic analysis we studied the axonal trajectories and neuropil architecture of the central visual systems of two whip scorpion species (Mastigoproctus giganteus and Typopeltis dalyi) with different neuroanatomical techniques (Cobalt fills, Wigglesworth stains, and μCT). The central visual system of whip scorpion comprises one pair of median eyes and one pair of lateral eye triplets. The R-cells (or retinula cells) of both eye types each terminate in a first and a second visual neuropil. Furthermore, a few R-cell fibres from the median eyes leave the second median eye visual neuropil and terminate in the second and the first lateral eye neuropil. This means R-cell terminals from the lateral eyes and the median eyes overlap here. Additionally, the arcuate body and mushroom bodies are described. A detailed comparison of our findings with previously studied chelicerate central visual systems seems to support a monophyly of Arachnopulmonata, i.e. a clade comprising Tetrapulmonata (Thelyphonida, Schizomida, Amblypygi, and Araneae) and Scorpions. Furthermore, the architecture of the central visual systems hints at a close evolutionary relationship of Arachnopulmonata and Xiphosura.