Sulpiride microemulsions as antipsychotic nasal drug delivery systems: In-vitro and pharmacodynamic study

The Exploitation of Sodium Deoxycholate-Stabilized Nano-Vesicular Gel for Ameliorating the Antipsychotic Efficiency of Sulpiride

The present study explored the effectiveness of bile-salt-based nano-vesicular carriers (bilosomes) for delivering anti-psychotic medication, Sulpiride (Su), via the skin. A response surface methodology (RSM), using a 33 Box-Behnken design (BBD) in particular, was employed to develop and optimize drug-loaded bilosomal vesicles. The optimized bilosomes were assessed based on their vesicle size, entrapment efficiency (% EE), and the amount of Sulpiride released. The Sulpiride-loaded bilosomal gel was generated by incorporating the optimized Su-BLs into a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose polymer. The obtained gel was examined for its physical properties, ex vivo permeability, and in vivo pharmacokinetic performance. The optimum Su-BLs exhibited a vesicle size of 211.26 ± 10.84 nm, an encapsulation efficiency of 80.08 ± 1.88% and a drug loading capacity of 26.69 ± 0.63%. Furthermore, the use of bilosomal vesicles effectively prolonged the release of Su over a period of twelve hours. In addition, the bilosomal gel loaded with Su exhibited a three-fold increase in the rate at which Su transferred through the skin, in comparison to oral-free Sulpiride. The relative bioavailability of Su-BL gel was almost four times as high as that of the plain Su suspension and approximately two times as high as that of the Su gel. Overall, bilosomes could potentially serve as an effective technique for delivering drugs through the skin, specifically enhancing the anti-psychotic effects of Sulpiride by increasing its ability to penetrate the skin and its systemic bioavailability, with few adverse effects.

Monophasic coamorphous sulpiride: a leap in physicochemical attributes and dual inhibition of GlyT1 and P-glycoprotein, supported by experimental and computational insights

Study aimed to design and development of a supramolecular formulation of sulpiride (SUL) to enhance its solubility, dissolution and permeability by targeting a novel GlyT1 inhibition mechanism. SUL is commonly used to treat gastric and duodenal ulcers, migraine, anti-emetic, anti-depressive and anti-dyspeptic conditions. Additionally, Naringin (NARI) was incorporated as a co-former to enhance the drug's intestinal permeability by targeting P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux inhibition. NARI, a flavonoid has diverse biological activities, including anti-apoptotic, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This study aims to design and develop a supramolecular formulation of SUL with NARI to enhance its solubility, dissolution, and permeability by targeting a novel GlyT1 inhibition mechanism, extensive experimental characterization was performed using solid-state experimental techniques in conjunction with a computational approach. This approach included quantum mechanics-based molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and density functional theory (DFT) studies to investigate intermolecular interactions, phase transformation and various electronic structure-based properties. The findings of the miscibility study, radial distribution function (RDF) analysis, quantitative simulations of hydrogen/π-π bond interactions and geometry optimization aided in comprehending the coamorphization aspects of SUL-NARI Supramolecular systems. Molecular docking and MD simulation were performed for detailed binding affinity assessment and target validation. The solubility, dissolution and ex-vivo permeability studies demonstrated significant improvements with 31.88-fold, 9.13-fold and 1.83-fold increments, respectively. Furthermore, biological assessments revealed superior neuroprotective effects in the SUL-NARI coamorphous system compared to pure SUL. In conclusion, this study highlights the advantages of a drug-nutraceutical supramolecular formulation for improving the solubility and permeability of SUL, targeting novel schizophrenia treatment approaches through combined computational and experimental analyses.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Tailoring Risperidone-Loaded Glycethosomal In Situ Gels Using Box-Behnken Design for Treatment of Schizophrenia-Induced Rats via Intranasal Route

Schizophrenic patients often face challenges with adherence to oral regimens. The study aimed to highlight the potentiality of intranasal ethanol/glycerin-containing lipid-nanovesicles (glycethosomes) incorporated into in situ gels for sustaining anti-psychotic risperidone (RS) release. The Box-Behnken Design (BBD) was followed for in vitro characterization. Glycethosomal-based in situ gels were examined by physical, ex vivo, and in vivo investigations. The ethanol impact on minimizing the vesicle size (VS) and enhancing the zeta potential (ZP) and entrapment efficiency (EE%) of nanovesicles was observed. Glycerin displayed positive action on increasing VS and ZP of nanovesicles, but reduced their EE%. After incorporation into various mucoadhesive agent-enriched poloxamer 407 (P407) in situ gels, the optimized gel containing 20% P407 and 1% hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose-K4M (HPMC-K4M) at a 4:1 gel/glycethosomes ratio showed low viscosity and high spreadability with acceptable pH, gel strength, and mucoadhesive strength ranges. The ethanol/glycerin mixture demonstrated a desirable ex vivo skin permeability of RS through the nasal mucosa. By pharmacokinetic analysis, the optimized gel showed eight-fold and three-fold greater increases in RS bioavailability than the control gel and marketed tablet, respectively. Following biochemical assessments of schizophrenia-induced rats, the optimized gel boosted the neuroprotective, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory action of RS in comparison to other tested preparations. Collectively, the intranasal RS-loaded glycethosomal gel offered a potential substitute to oral therapy for schizophrenic patients.

Overcoming the Drawbacks of Sulpiride by Means of New Crystal Forms

This study aims at developing new multicomponent crystal forms of sulpiride, an antipsychotic drug. The main goal was to improve its solubility since it belongs to class IV of the BCS. Nine new adducts were obtained by combining the active pharmaceutical ingredient with acid coformers: a salt cocrystal and eight molecular salts. In addition, three novel co-drugs, of which two are molecular salts and one is a cocrystal, were also achieved. All samples were characterized in the solid state by complementary techniques (i.e., infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction and solid-state NMR). For systems for which it was possible to obtain good-quality single crystals, the structure was solved by single crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD). SCXRD combined with solid-state NMR were used to evaluate the ionic or neutral character of the adducts. In vitro dissolution tests of the new crystal forms were performed and all the adducts display remarkable dissolution properties with respect to pure sulpiride.

Tea Tree Oil Nanoemulsion-Based Hydrogel Vehicle for Enhancing Topical Delivery of Neomycin

The present investigation aims to improve the antimicrobial influence of certain antibacterial drugs, namely, neomycin (NEO), exploiting the benefits of natural oils such as tea tree oil (TTO). Therefore, a distinctive nanolipid formulation, namely, a nanoemulsion (NE), was developed using a Central Composite Factorial Design (CCD) approach depending on the amount of TTO and tween 80 as surfactant. The optimized NEO-NE formula exhibiting minimum globular size and maximum in vitro release was selected. For efficient topical delivery, NEO-NE was incorporated into a pre-formulated hydrogel. The developed NEO-NE-hydrogel was characterized by its physical characteristics such as pH, viscosity, and spreadability. Next, it was tested for stability under different conditions for 3 months. Ultimately, an irritation test was conducted followed by an antibacterial examination. The preparation demonstrated acceptable properties to be successfully applied topically. It showed non-significant changes in stability in both conditions up to 3 months storage when compared to a fresh preparation. It exhibited no irritation when applied on hairless animal skin. Finally, TTO revealed a good inhibition for the bacterial growth that could improve the influence of NEO antibacterial activity, indicating the efficiency of NE containing NEO prepared with TTO to be a promising antibacterial nanocarrier.

Evaluating Antimicrobial Activity and Wound Healing Effect of Rod-Shaped Nanoparticles

Presently, the nanotechnology approach has gained a great concern in the media of drug delivery. Gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) specially having a non-spherical structure, such as gold nanorods (GNR), are attracting much interest as antibacterial agent and many other medical fields. The aim of the current investigation was to characterize Au-NPs and investigate their antimicrobial and wound healing efficacy in diabetic animals. Material and methods: Au-NPs were characterized using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer, estimating their particle size, polydispersity (PDI), and assessing their morphological characters. Further, Au-NPs were estimated for their antibacterial and antifungal behavior. Ultimately, in vivo activity of Au-NPs was evaluated against excision wound healing in STZ-induced diabetic animals. Results: Au-NPs were found to show maximum absorption at 520 nm. They exhibited a particle size of 82.57 nm with a PDI value of 0.323. Additionally, they exhibited good antimicrobial activity against different bacterial strains. Topical application of Au-NPs caused a significantly increased percentage of wound area reduction, lesser time needed for epithelialization, and augmented hydroxyproline, collagen, and hexosamine levels demonstrating enhanced healing processes. Furthermore, Au-NPs displayed a significant intensification in angiogenesis-related factors (HIF-1α, TGF-β1, and VEGF), and antioxidant enzymes activities (CAT, SOD, GPx) as well as mitigated inflammatory mediators IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and NF-κB) and lipid peroxidation (MDA). Conclusion: Au-NPs exhibited proper particle size, and rod-shaped particles, with efficient antimicrobial behavior against different bacterial strains. Furthermore, Au-NPs demonstrated a promising wound healing activity in STZ-induced diabetic animals.

Response Surface Methodology for Optimization of Buspirone Hydrochloride-Loaded In Situ Gel for Pediatric Anxiety

The purpose of the current investigation was to formulate, assess, and optimize oral in situ gels of buspirone hydrochloride (BH) with the specific end goal of expanding the time the medication spends in the stomach, thereby ensuring an extended medication discharge. This would allow the use of a once-a-day dose of liquid BH formulations, which is ideal for the treatment of pediatric anxiety. In situ gels loaded with BH were prepared using various concentrations of sodium alginate (Na alg.), calcium chloride (CaCl₂), and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC K15M). The in situ gels exhibited the desired consistency, drug distribution, pH, ability to form gel, and prolonged drug release in vitro. The (3³) full factorial design was utilized for the revealing of the ideal figures for the selected independent variables, Na alg. (X₁), HPMC (X₂), and CaCl₂ (X₃) based on measurements of the viscosity (Y₁) and percentage drug release after 6 h (Y₂). A pharmacokinetic study of the optimum formulation on rabbits was also performed. The formulation containing 2% of Na alg., 0.9% of HPMC-K15M, and 0.1125% of CaCl₂ was selected as the ideal formulation, which gave the theoretical values of 269.2 cP and 44.9% for viscosity and percentage of drug released after 6 h, respectively. The pharmacokinetic study showed that the selected oral Na alg. in situ gel formulation displayed a prolonged release effect compared to BH solution and the marketed tablet (Buspar^®), which was confirmed by the low C_max and high T_max values. The optimum oral Na alg. in situ gel showed a 1.5-fold increment in bioavailability compared with the drug solution.

Development, Characterization and Optimization of the Anti-Inflammatory Influence of Meloxicam Loaded into a Eucalyptus Oil-Based Nanoemulgel

The purpose of the present study was to explore the influence of a certain natural essential oil, namely eucalyptus oil, as an anti-inflammatory agent in addition to its prospective role in enhancing the action of meloxicam in reducing inflammation. As far as we know, this has been the first integration of meloxicam and eucalyptus essential oil into a nanoemulgel formulation intended for topical use. Primarily, eucalyptus oil was utilized in developing a nanoemulsion formulation incorporating meloxicam. A 22 factorial design was constructed using two independent variables (oil concentration and surfactant concentration) with two responses (particle size and % of in vitro release). One optimized formula was selected depending on the desirability function and subjected to a stability study. The optimized nanoemulsion was mixed with HPMC as a gelling agent to produce a meloxicam-loaded nanoemulgel, which was examined for its properties, stability, in vitro release and ex vivo permeation. Eventually, the anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated and compared with a placebo and corresponding gel formulation. The developed nanoemulgel revealed acceptable physical characteristics to be applied topically. Studying of the in vitro release was conducted successfully for 6 h. The ex vivo permeation from the nanoemulgel formulations was prompted, showing an appropriate value of the steady-state transdermal flux (SSTF). As a final point, the anti-inflammatory activity of the developed nanoemulgel revealed a valued anti-inflammatory influence. Additionally, the concurrence of eucalyptus essential oil and meloxicam was assured, and their potential in combating and lowering inflammation was supported.

Experimental Design and Optimization of Nano-Transfersomal Gel to Enhance the Hypoglycemic Activity of Silymarin

Current advancements in the research investigations focused at using natural products to generate novel dosage forms with a potential therapeutic impact. Silymarin is a natural product obtained from the herb Silybum marianum that has been shown to have remarkable hypoglycemic activity. Owing to the low enteral absorption, instability in stomach secretion, and poor solubility of Silymarin, it was better to be produced as a topical dosage form. A three-factor, three-level Box Behnken (3³ BB) design was constructed to develop 15 formulations using three independent variables (phospholipid concentration, surfactant concentration, and sonication time) and two dependent variables (encapsulation efficiency and in vitro drug release). The optimized formula was added to HPMC gel and the resulting transfersomal gel was investigated for its characteristics, in vitro, ex vivo and hypoglycemic behaviors. The pH of the Silymarin-loaded transfersomal gel was 7.05, the spreadability was 55.35 mm, and the viscosity was 6.27 Pa. Furthermore, Silymarin loaded transfersomal gel had the greatest transdermal flux (92.41 µg/cm²·h), which was much greater than all other formulations. In vivo observations revealed that Silymarin loaded transfersomal gel significantly reduced blood glucose levels, compared to either Silymarin gel or oral Silymarin suspension. The findings show that the developed transfersomal gel could be an effective carrier for Silymarin transdermal delivery.

Quality by Design for Optimizing a Novel Liposomal Jojoba Oil-Based Emulgel to Ameliorate the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Brucine

One of the recent advancements in research is the application of natural products in developing newly effective formulations that have few drawbacks and that boost therapeutic effects. The goal of the current exploration is to investigate the effect of jojoba oil in augmenting the anti-inflammatory effect of Brucine natural alkaloid. This is first development of a formulation that applies Brucine and jojoba oil int a PEGylated liposomal emulgel proposed for topical application. Initially, various PEGylated Brucine liposomal formulations were fabricated using a thin-film hydration method. (2²) Factorial design was assembled using two factors (egg Phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol concentrations) and three responses (particle size, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release). The optimized formula was incorporated within jojoba oil emulgel. The PEGylated liposomal emulgel was inspected for its characteristics, in vitro, ex vivo and anti-inflammatory behaviors. Liposomal emulgel showed a pH of 6.63, a spreadability of 48.8 mm and a viscosity of 9310 cP. As much as 40.57% of Brucine was released after 6 h, and drug permeability exhibited a flux of 0.47 µg/cm²·h. Lastly, % of inflammation was lowered to 47.7, which was significant effect compared to other formulations. In conclusion, the anti-inflammatory influence of jojoba oil and Brucine was confirmed, supporting their integration into liposomal emulgel as a potential nanocarrier.

Microemulsion-Based Media in Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery

Nose-to-brain drug delivery has recently attracted enormous attention as an alternative to other delivery routes, including the most popular oral one. Due to the unique anatomical features of the nasal cavity, drugs administered intranasally can be delivered directly to the central nervous system. The most important advantage of this approach is the ability to avoid the blood-brain barrier surrounding the brain and blocking the entry of exogenous substances to the central nervous system. Moreover, selective brain targeting could possibly avoid peripheral side effects of pharmacotherapy. The challenges associated with nose-to-brain drug delivery are mostly due to the small volume of the nasal cavity and insufficient drug absorption from nasal mucosa. These issues could be minimized by using a properly designed drug carrier. Microemulsions as potential drug delivery systems offer good solubilizing properties and the ability to enhance drug permeation through biological membranes. The aim of this review is to summarize the current status of the research focused on microemulsion-based systems for nose-to-brain delivery with special attention to the most extensively investigated neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, and schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia; A Review on Promising Drug Delivery Systems

Background:

Schizophrenia belongs to mental illnesses affecting 1% of the worldwide population. Its therapy is still unmet; thus, researchers aimed to develop new pharmacological molecules which can improve its management.

Methods:

Moreover, the current typical and atypical antipsychotics should be formulated in more efficacious systems that can deliver the drug in the brain with as few side effects as possible. Further, the development of long-acting efficient drug delivery systems could be significant in minimizing frequent dosing which is nonpreferred to schizophrenics.

Results:

Herein, authors focused on current developments of antipsychotic medications used in schizophrenia management. Various studies, which include the use of first and second-generation antipsychotics, were analyzed according to their efficacy. In fact, in this review, oral, injectable, transdermal and intranasal formulations entrapped antipsychotics are presented to be valuable guidance for scientists to formulate more effective drug delivery systems for schizophrenic patients.

Conclusions:

This review aimed to assist researchers working on schizophrenia management by summarizing current medications and newly synthesized drug delivery systems recently found in the literature.

Nasal delivery of nanosuspension-based mucoadhesive formulation with improved bioavailability of loratadine: Preparation, characterization, and in vivo evaluation

The unique requirements of poorly water-soluble drug delivery have driven a great deal of research into new formulations and routes of administration. This study investigates the use of nanosuspensions for solubility enhancement and drug delivery. Simple methods were used to prepare nasal formulations of loratadine based on nanosuspension pre-dispersion with sodium hyaluronate as a mucoadhesive agent. The nanosuspension was prepared by antisolvent precipitation method followed by ultrasonication and characterized for particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology, and structure. Moreover, the nasal formulations were characterized for drug loading, pH, particle size, viscosity, bioadhesive viscosity parameter, and were evaluated for in vitro dissolution and diffusion, in addition to in vivo studies in a rat model. Loratadine nanosuspension displayed a particle size of 311 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.16, and zeta potential of -22.05 mV. The nanosuspension preserved the crystalline status of the raw drug. The addition of sodium hyaluronate exhibited an increase in the mean particle size and zeta potential of the nanoparticles. The nasal formulations showed enhanced bioadhesive properties compared to the unprocessed loratadine in the reference samples. The nanosuspension based-formulation that contained 5 mg mL^-1 sodium hyaluronate and 2.5 mg mL^-1 loratadine (NF4) showed a significant enhancement of flux and permeability coefficient through a synthetic membrane. NF4 exhibited 24.73 µg cm^-2 h^-1 and 0.082 cm h^-1, while the reference sample showed 1.49 µg cm^-2 h^-1 and 0.017 cm h^-1, for the flux and the permeability coefficient, respectively. Nasal administration of NF4 showed a bioavailability of 5.54-fold relative to the oral administration. The results obtained in this study indicate the potential of the nasal route and the nanosuspension for loratadine delivery. The relative bioavailability of NF4 was 1.84-fold compared to unprocessed loratadine in the reference sample. Therefore, the nanosized loratadine could be suggested as a practical and simple nanosystem for the intranasal delivery with improved bioavailability.