Quality by design based silymarin nanoemulsion for enhancement of oral bioavailability

From lab to industrial development of lipid nanocarriers using quality by design approach

Lipid nanocarriers have attracted a great deal of interest in the delivery of therapeutic molecules. Despite their many advantages, compliance with quality standards and reproducibility requirements still constrain their industrial production. The relatively high failure rate in lipid nanocarrier research and development can be attributed to immature bottom-up manufacturing practices, leading to suboptimal control of quality attributes. Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has moved toward quality-driven manufacturing, emphasizing the integration of product and process development through the principles of quality by design. Quality by design in the pharmaceutical industry involves a thorough understanding of the quality profile of the target product and involves an assessment of potential risks during the design and development phases of pharmaceutical dosage forms. By identifying essential quality characteristics, such as the active ingredients, excipients and manufacturing processes used during research and development, it becomes possible to effectively control these aspects throughout the life cycle of the drug. Successful commercialization of lipid nanocarriers can be achieved if large-scale challenges are addressed using the QbD approach. QbD has become an essential tool because of its advantages in improving processes and product quality. The application of the QbD approach to the development of lipid nanocarriers can provide comprehensive and remarkable knowledge enabling the manufacture of high-quality products with a high degree of regulatory flexibility. This article reviews the basic considerations of QbD and its application in the laboratory and large-scale development of lipid nanocarriers. Furthermore, it provides forward-looking guidance for the industrial production of lipid nanocarriers using the QbD approach.

Optimizing rosemary oil nanoemulsion loaded with nelfinavir and epigallocatechin gallate: A Design Expert® endorsed approach for enhanced neuroAIDS management

This study focuses on optimizing the delivery of Nelfinavir (NFV), a vital protease inhibitor in antiretroviral therapy, and Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a potent adjunctive anti- human immunodeficiency virus (anti-HIV) agent found in green tea. The challenge lies in NFV's low intrinsic dissolution rate, significant p-gp efflux, and high hepatic metabolism, necessitating frequent and high-dose administration. Our objective was to develop a nanoemulsion loaded with NFV and EGCG to enhance oral delivery, expediting antiretroviral effects for NeuroAIDS treatment. After meticulous excipient screening, we selected Tween 40 as the surfactant and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) as the co-surfactant. Employing a Quality by Design (QbD) approach with statistical multivariate methods, we optimized the nanoemulsion that exhibited a droplet size of 83.21 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 2.289, transmittance of 95.20 %, zeta potential of 1.495 mV, pH of 6.95, refractive index of 1.40, viscosity of 24.00 ± 0.42 mPas, and conductivity of 0.162 μS/cm. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated superior in vivo absorption of the optimized nanoemulsion compared to NFV and EGCG suspension. The optimized nanoemulsion showcased higher Cmax of NFV (9.75 ± 1.23 μg/mL) and EGCG (27.7 ± 1.22 μg/mL) in the brain, along with NFV (26.44 ± 1.44 μg/mL) and EGCG (313.20 ± 5.53 μg/mL) in the plasma. This study advocates for the potential of NFV and EGCG-loaded nanoemulsion in combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) for effective NeuroAIDS management.

Silybin-Functionalized PCL Electrospun Fibrous Membranes for Potential Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

Silybin is a natural flavonolignan with potential anticancer, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties. In the present study, various loadings of silybin (1, 3, and 5 wt%) were encapsulated in poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) fibers by electrospinning, in order to produce new pharmaceutical composites with improved bioactive and drug delivery properties. The morphological characteristics of the composite fibrous structures were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the encapsulation efficiency and the release rate of silybin were quantified using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The analysis of the membranes' thermal behavior by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed the existence of interaction between PCL and silybin. An investigation of the cytocompatibility of the composite membranes revealed that normal cells displayed an unimpeded proliferation in the respective silybin concentrations; however, tumor cell growth demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition. Furthermore, an effective antioxidant activity against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in HEK-293 cells was observed for the prepared electrospun fibrous mats.

Antiretroviral action of Rosemary oil-based atazanavir formulation and the role of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system in the management of HIV-1 infection

Atazanavir or ATV is an FDA-approved, HIV-1 protease inhibitor that belongs to the azapeptide group. Over time, it has been observed that ATV can cause multiple adverse side effects in the form of liver diseases including elevations in serum aminotransferase, indirect hyper-bilirubinemia, and idiosyncratic acute liver injury aggravating the underlying chronic viral hepatitis. Hence, there is an incessant need to explore the safe and efficacious method of delivering ATV in a controlled manner that may reduce the proportion of its idiosyncratic reactions in patients who are on antiretroviral therapy for years. In this study, we assessed ATV formulation along with Rosemary oil to enhance the anti-HIV-1 activity and its controlled delivery through self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system or SNEDDS to enhance its oral bioavailability. While the designing, development, and characterization of ATV-SNEDDS were addressed through various evaluation parameters and pharmacokinetic-based studies, in vitro cell-based experiments assured the safety and efficacy of the designed ATV formulation. The study discovered the potential of ATV-SNEDDS to inhibit HIV-1 infection at a lower concentration as compared to its pure counterpart. Simultaneously, we could also demonstrate the ATV and Rosemary oil providing leads for designing and developing such formulations for the management of HIV-1 infections with the alleviation in the risk of adverse reactions.

The Radiosensitizing Potentials of Silymarin/Silibinin in Cancer: A Systematic Review

INTRODUCTION

Although radiotherapy is one of the main cancer treatment modalities, exposing healthy organs/tissues to ionizing radiation during treatment and tumor resistance to ionizing radiation are the chief challenges of radiotherapy that can lead to different adverse effects. It was shown that the combined treatment of radiotherapy and natural bioactive compounds (such as silymarin/silibinin) can alleviate the ionizing radiation-induced adverse side effects and induce synergies between these therapeutic modalities. In the present review, the potential radiosensitization effects of silymarin/silibinin during cancer radiation exposure/radiotherapy were studied.

METHODS

According to the PRISMA guideline, a systematic search was performed for the identification of relevant studies in different electronic databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus up to October 2022. We screened 843 articles in accordance with a predefined set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Seven studies were finally included in this systematic review.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, the cell survival/proliferation of cancer cells treated with ionizing radiation was considerably less, and silymarin/silibinin administration synergistically increased ionizing radiation-induced cytotoxicity. Furthermore, there was a decrease in the tumor volume, weight, and growth of ionizing radiation-treated mice as compared to the untreated groups, and these diminutions were predominant in those treated with radiotherapy plus silymarin/ silibinin. Furthermore, the irradiation led to a set of biochemical and histopathological changes in tumoral cells/tissues, and the ionizing radiation-induced alterations were synergized following silymarin/silibinin administration (in most cases).

CONCLUSION

In most cases, silymarin/silibinin administration could sensitize the cancer cells to ionizing radiation through an increase of free radical formation, induction of DNA damage, increase of apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis, etc. However, suggesting the use of silymarin/silibinin during radiotherapeutic treatment of cancer patients requires further clinical studies.

Designing lisuride intranasal nanocarrier system for reduction of oxidative damage with enhanced dopamine level in brain for Parkinsonism

In the present study, nanoemulsion (NE) loaded with lisuride were formulated for delivering drug to brain via intranasal route. Dopamine levels, pharmacokinetic, and antioxidant activity were estimated. Antioxidant effect of lisuride NE was assessed in-vivo using oxidative stress models revealing symptoms like those of Parkinson's disease. Intranasally administered lisuride NE-treated group revealed a greater number of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) as compared to the intravenously administered lisuride suspension in haloperidol rat model. Additionally, it was observed that lisuride NE can decrease dopamine loss. When lisuride NE was administered intranasally resulted in considerably higher dopamine concentrations (17.48 ± 0.05 ng/mL) in comparison to rats receiving haloperidol (7.28 ± 0.02 ng/mL). From study, it is suggested that NE is a possible strategy to deliver lisuride intranasally to lower free radical damage and prevent the biochemical alterations associated with Parkinson's disease.

Lipid-Based Delivery Systems for Flavonoids and Flavonolignans: Liposomes, Nanoemulsions, and Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

Herbal chemicals with a long history in medicine have attracted a lot of attention. Flavonolignans and flavonoids are considered as two classes of the above-mentioned compounds with different functional groups which exhibit several therapeutic capabilities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities. Based on the studies, high hydrophobic properties of the aforementioned compounds limit their bioavailability inside the human body and restrict their wide application. Nanoscale formulations such as solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and other types of lipid-based delivery systems have been introduced to overcome the above-mentioned challenges. This approach allows the aforementioned hydrophobic therapeutic compounds to be encapsulated between hydrophobic structures, resulting in improving their bioavailability. The above-mentioned enhanced delivery system improves delivery to the targeted sites and reduces the daily required dosage. Lowering the required daily dose improves the performance of the drug by diminishing its side effects on non-targeted tissues. The present study aims to highlight the recent improvements in implementing lipid-based nanocarriers to deliver flavonolignans and flavonoids.

A systematic review of the protective effects of silymarin/silibinin against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

PURPOSE

Although doxorubicin chemotherapy is commonly applied for treating different malignant tumors, cardiotoxicity induced by this chemotherapeutic agent restricts its clinical use. The use of silymarin/silibinin may mitigate the doxorubicin-induced cardiac adverse effects. For this aim, the potential cardioprotective effects of silymarin/silibinin against the doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity were systematically reviewed.

METHODS

In this study, we performed a systematic search in accordance with PRISMA guideline for identifying all relevant studies on "the role of silymarin/silibinin against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity" in different electronic databases up to June 2022. Sixty-one articles were obtained and screened based on the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Thirteen eligible papers were finally included in this review.

RESULTS

According to the echocardiographic and electrocardiographic findings, the doxorubicin-treated groups presented a significant reduction in ejection fraction, tissue Doppler peak mitral annulus systolic velocity, and fractional shortening as well as bradycardia, prolongation of QT and QRS interval. However, these echocardiographic abnormalities were obviously improved in the silymarin plus doxorubicin groups. As well, the doxorubicin administration led to induce histopathological and biochemical changes in the cardiac cells/tissue; in contrast, the silymarin/silibinin co-administration could mitigate these induced alterations (for most of the cases).

CONCLUSION

According to the findings, it was found that the co-administration of silymarin/silibinin alleviates the doxorubicin-induced cardiac adverse effects. Silymarin/silibinin exerts its cardioprotective effects via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic activities, and other mechanisms.

Recent Advances in Improving the Bioavailability of Hydrophobic/Lipophilic Drugs and Their Delivery via Self-Emulsifying Formulations

Formulations based on emulsions for enhancing hydrophobic and lipophilic drug delivery and its bioavailability have attracted a lot of interest. As potential therapeutic agents, they are integrated with inert oils, emulsions, surfactant solubility, liposomes, etc.; drug delivering systems that use emulsion formations have emerged as a unique and commercially achievable accession to override the issue of less oral bioavailability in connection with hydrophobic and lipophilic drugs. As an ideal isotropic oil mixture of surfactants and co-solvents, it self-emulsifies and forms fine oil in water emulsions when acquainted with aqueous material. As droplets rapidly pass through the stomach, fine oil promotes the vast spread of the drug all over the GI (gastrointestinal tract) and conquers the slow disintegration commonly seen in solid drug forms. The current status of advancement in technologies for drug carrying has promulgated the expansion of innovative drug carriers for the controlled release of self-emulsifying pellets, tablets, capsules, microspheres, etc., which got a boost for drug delivery usage with self-emulsification. The present review article includes various kinds of formulations based on the size of particles and excipients utilized in emulsion formation for drug delivery mechanisms and the increase in the bioavailability of lipophilic/hydrophobic drugs in the present time.

A review of nanostructured delivery systems for the encapsulation, protection, and delivery of silymarin: An emerging nutraceutical

Silymarin exhibits biological activities that may promote human health and wellbeing, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Consequently, it has potential for application as a nutraceutical ingredient in functional foods and supplements. But its application for this purpose is currently limited by its poor water solubility, chemical stability, and bioavailability. The potential of nano-delivery systems to improve the functional performance of silymarin was reviewed in this manuscript. The formation, attributes, and applications of biopolymer-based, lipid-based, surfactant-based, and miscellaneous nanocarriers are discussed. In particular, the impact of the different delivery systems such as biopolymer-based, lipid-based delivery systems on the gastrointestinal fate of silymarin is summarized. The encapsulation in edible nanocarriers can improve the bioavailability of silymarin by enhancing its water-dispersibility, inhibiting its degradation, and increasing its absorption.These nanocarriers may therefore be utilized to incorporate this nutraceutical into functional foods and supplements in a bioavailable form.

Herbal nanomedicines: Recent advancements, challenges, opportunities and regulatory overview

BACKGROUND

Herbal Nano Medicines (HNMs) are nano-sized medicine containing herbal drugs as extracts, enriched fractions or biomarker constituents. HNMs have certain advantages because of their increased bioavailability and reduced toxicities. There are very few literature reports that address the common challenges of herbal nanoformulations, such as selecting the type/class of nanoformulation for an extract or a phytochemical, selection and optimisation of preparation method and physicochemical parameters. Although researchers have shown more interest in this field in the last decade, there is still an urgent need for systematic analysis of HNMs.

PURPOSE

This review aims to provide the recent advancement in various herbal nanomedicines like polymeric herbal nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, phytosomes, nano-micelles, self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system, nanofibers, liposomes, dendrimers, ethosomes, nanoemulsion, nanosuspension, and carbon nanotube; their evaluation parameters, challenges, and opportunities. Additionally, regulatory aspects and future perspectives of herbal nanomedicines are also being covered to some extent.

METHODS

The scientific data provided in this review article are retrieved by a thorough analysis of numerous research and review articles, textbooks, and patents searched using the electronic search tools like Sci-Finder, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Elsevier, Google Scholar, ACS, Medline Plus and Web of Science.

RESULTS

In this review, the authors suggested the suitability of nanoformulation for a particular type of extracts or enriched fraction of phytoconstituents based on their solubility and permeability profile (similar to the BCS class of drugs). This review focuses on different strategies for optimising preparation methods for various HNMs to ensure reproducibility in context with all the physicochemical parameters like particle size, surface area, zeta potential, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency, drug loading, and drug release, along with the consistent therapeutic index.

CONCLUSION

A combination of herbal medicine with nanotechnology can be an essential tool for the advancement of herbal medicine research with enhanced bioavailability and fewer toxicities. Despite the challenges related to traditional medicine's safe and effective use, there is huge scope for nanotechnology-based herbal medicines. Overall, it is well stabilized that herbal nanomedicines are safer, have higher bioavailability, and have enhanced therapeutic value than conventional herbal and synthetic drugs.

Recapitulation of Evidence of Phytochemical, Pharmacokinetic and Biomedical Application of Silybin

Silymarin is a standardized extract obtained from seeds of Silybum marianum (SM) belonging to the family Asteraceae. It is a flavonolignan complex and consists of various compounds like silybin A silybin B, isosilybin A, isosilybin B, silydianin, silychristin and isosilychristin. Silybin is the major active component present in 60-70% of the silymarin extract. It has been used traditionally for the treatment of various liver disorders like cirrhosis, jaundice, and hepatitis. Silymarin possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and is responsible for its antitumor activity. Other than hepatoprotective effect SM also possesses renoprotective, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, hypolipidemic, anti-atherosclerosis and cardioprotective effects. Rather antimicrobial property of silymarin was observed against specific microbes, fungi, and viruses. This manuscript covered recent preclinical and clinical evidence of specific components silybin, responsible for its efficacy and about clinical studies has been conducted so far, which proven it's safety and offers mild effect like nausea, diarrhea and bloating. This review specifically focused on recent updates on its active components therapeutic applications against complicated ailments not covered in earlier reports.

Development of Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System to Improve Nisoldipine Bioavailability: Cell Line and In Vivo Evaluations : Development of Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System

The authors attempted to fabricate a novel lipid-based formulation of a lipophilic drug, nisoldipine (NISO). As NISO belongs to BCS class 2 drug, it suffers from low bioavailability (5%). Hence, the research was intended to ameliorate oral bioavailability of NISO via intestinal lymphatic transport. The NISO loaded self microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) (NISO SMEDDS) was prepared using Peceol, Cremophor EL, and Transcutol HP. The Cremophor EL and Transcutol HP at 1:1 ratio showed maximum microemulsifying area, and average globule size was 16.78 ± 0.97 nm with PDI 0.121 ± 0.024. Cellular uptake studies (confocal microscopy and flow cytometry) using Caco-2 cells depicted higher fluorescence with coumarin-6 loaded SMEDDS as that of coumarin-6 solution which indicated deeper penetration. Mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of coumarin-6 loaded SMEDDS was significantly improved (9.92-fold) in contrast to coumarin-6 solution. The NISO SMEDDS showed enhanced permeability (5.02 times) across Caco-2 cells compared to NISO suspension. The bioavailability improvement with NISO SMEEDS was 2.14 times relative to suspension, and lymphatic uptake was involved in oral absorption of NISO SMEDDS.

The Emerging Role of Nanomedicine in the Management of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A State-of-the-Art Review

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic liver disease that can lead to end-stage liver disease needing a liver transplant. Many pharmacological approaches are used to reduce the disease progression in NAFLD. However, current strategies remain ineffective to reverse the progression of NAFLD completely. Employing nanoparticles as a drug delivery system has demonstrated significant potential for improving the bioavailability of drugs in the treatment of NAFLD. Various types of nanoparticles are exploited in this regard for the management of NAFLD. In this review, we cover the current therapeutic approaches to manage NAFLD and provide a review of recent up-to-date advances in the uses of nanoparticles for the treatment of NAFLD.

Improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of garlic bioactive compounds via nanotechnology

This review highlights main bioactive compounds and important biological functions especially anticancer effects of the garlic. In addition, we review current literature on the stability and bioavailability of garlic components. Finally, this review aims to provide a potential strategy for using nanotechnology to increase the stability and solubility of garlic components, providing guidelines for the qualities of garlic products to improve their absorption and prevent their early degradation, and extend their circulation time in the body. The application of nanotechnology to improve the bioavailability and targeting of garlic compounds are expected to provide a theoretical basis for the functional components of garlic to treat human health. We review the improvement of bioavailability and bioactivity of garlic bioactive compounds via nanotechnology, which could promisingly overcome the limitations of conventional garlic products, and would be used to prevent and treat cancer and other diseases in the near future.

Enhanced Bioavailability and Efficacy of Silymarin Solid Dispersion in Rats with Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity

We evaluated the bioavailability, liver distribution, and efficacy of silymarin-D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) solid dispersion (silymarin-SD) in rats with acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity (APAP) compared with silymarin alone. The solubility of silybin, the major and active component of silymarin, in the silymarin-SD group increased 23-fold compared with the silymarin group. The absorptive permeability of silybin increased by 4.6-fold and its efflux ratio decreased from 5.5 to 0.6 in the presence of TPGS. The results suggested that TPGS functioned as a solubilizing agent and permeation enhancer by inhibiting efflux pump. Thus, silybin concentrations in plasma and liver were increased in the silymarin-SD group and liver distribution increased 3.4-fold after repeated oral administration of silymarin-SD (20 mg/kg as silybin) for five consecutive days compared with that of silymarin alone (20 mg/kg as silybin). Based on higher liver silybin concentrations in the silymarin-SD group, the therapeutic effects of silymarin-SD in hepatotoxic rats were evaluated and compared with silymarin administration only. Elevated alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase levels were significantly decreased by silymarin-SD, silymarin, and TPGS treatments, but these decreases were much higher in silymarin-SD animals than in those treated with silymarin or TPGS. In conclusion, silymarin-SD (20 mg/kg as silybin, three times per day for 5 days) exhibited hepatoprotective properties toward hepatotoxic rats and these properties were superior to silymarin alone, which may be attributed to increased solubility, enhanced intestinal permeability, and increased liver distribution of the silymarin-SD formulation.

Role of Flavonoids in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Limitations and Future Perspectives

BACKGROUND

Flavonoids, a group of natural dietary polyphenols, are known for their beneficial effects on human health. By virtue of their various pharmacological effects, like anti-oxidative, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic and neuroprotective effects, flavonoids have now become an important component of herbal supplements, pharmaceuticals, medicinals and cosmetics. There has been enormous literature supporting neuroprotective effect of flavonoids. Recently their efficacy in various neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson diseases, has received particular attention.

OBJECTIVE

The mechanism of flavanoids neuroprotection might include antioxidant, antiapoptotic, antineuroinflammatory and modulation of various cellular and intracellular targets. In in-vivo systems, before reaching to brain, they have to cross barriers like extensive first pass metabolism, intestinal barrier and ultimately blood brain barrier. Different flavonoids have varied pharmacokinetic characteristics, which affect their pharmacodynamic profile. Therefore, brain accessibility of flavonoids is still debatable.

METHODS

This review emphasized on current trends of research and development on flavonoids, especially in neurodegenerative diseases, possible challenges and strategies to encounter using novel drug delivery system.

RESULTS

Various flavonoids have elicited their therapeutic potential against neurodegenerative diseases, however by using nanotechnology and novel drug delivery systems, the bioavailability of favonoids could be enhanced.

CONCLUSION

This study bridges a significant opinion on medicinal chemistry, ethanopharmacology and new drug delivery research regarding use of flavonoids in management of neurodegeneration.

Effect of environmental stresses on physicochemical properties of ALA oil-in-water nanoemulsion system prepared by emulsion phase inversion

To solve the stability and oxidation issues of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), this study focused on developing ALA nanoemulsion system (ALA-NE, oil-in-water) and evaluating the effect of environmental conditions on physical stability and the effect of antioxidants on oxidative stability. The physicochemical properties of nanoemulsions were measured at different conditions, including particle diameter, zeta potential, retention rate and peroxidation value (POV). The particle diameter increased significantly and the retention rate decreased after 25 days storage under the conditions of high temperature and metal ions. However, the influence of ionic strength, pH and light was insignificant. As an antioxidant, Vitamin E was more effective at retarding lipid oxidation of nanoemulsions than that of vitamin C. These results provided reference information in preparing effective and stable ALA-NE systems and enlarging the application fields.

Enhanced bioavailability and antihypertensive activity of nisoldipine loaded nanoemulsion: optimization, cytotoxicity and uptake across Caco-2 cell line, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies

Objective: The present study explored the antihypertensive activity of nisoldipine in oil in water nanoemulsion to improve its oral bioavailability via intestinal lymphatic uptake.Methods: Nanoemulsion was prepared by ultrasonication technique using Peceol, Cremophor EL and Transcutol HP as oil, surfactant and cosurfactant respectively. Optimization was done employing 3² full factorial design. The developed formulation was assessed for in vitro,cell line, ex vivo and in vivo studies.Results: The experimental results indicated homogeneity of the nanoemulsion with globule size of 62.35 ± 2.55 nm and PDI value of 0.108 ± 0.01 with negative zeta potential (-26.2 ± 3.6 mV). Transmission electron microscopy showed spherical oil globules morphology. The in vitro diffusion study showed significant increase in drug release from NE formulations (98.51 ± 2.64%) as compared to plain drug dispersion (29.73 ± 2.15%) in 0.1 N HCl + 0.5% SLS medium. Moreover, higher quantitative and qualitative uptake of nanoemulsion via Caco-2 cells showed superior intestinal absorption and improved therapeutic activity of nisoldipine when compared to drug dispersion. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study confirmed significantly (p ˂ 0.05) greater bioavailability and antihypertensive activity of nisoldipine nanoemulsion when compared to its dispersion. These results are visualized in abstract figure.Conclusion: Thus, prepared nanoemulsion showed potential as oral delivery system for nisoldipine with superior oral bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy over drug dispersion.

Pharmaceutical design and development of perfluorocarbon nanocolloids for oxygen delivery in regenerative medicine

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) have been investigated as oxygen carriers for several decades in varied biomedical applications. PFCs are chemically and biologically inert, temperature and storage stable, pose low to no infectious risk, can be commercially manufactured, and have well established gas transport properties. In this review, we highlight design and development strategies for their successful application in regenerative medicine, transplantation and organ preservation. Effective tissue preservation strategies are key to improving outcomes of extremity salvage and organ transplantation. Maintaining tissue integrity requires adequate oxygenation to support aerobic metabolism. The use of whole blood for oxygen delivery is fraught with limitations of poor shelf stability, infectious risk, religious exclusions and product shortages. Other agents also face clinical challenges in their implementation. As a solution, we discuss new ways of designing and developing PFC-based artificial oxygen carriers by implementing modern pharmaceutical quality by design and scale up manufacturing methodologies.

Developing Cream Formulations: Renewed Interest in an Old Problem

This work aimed at establishing a framework to screen and understand the product variability deeming from factors that affect the quality features of cream formulations. As per Quality by Design - based approach, cream quality target profile and critical quality attributes were identified, and a risk assessment analysis was conducted to qualitatively detect the most critical variables for cream design and development. A Plackett-Burman design was used to screen out unimportant factors, avoiding collecting large amounts of data. Accordingly, 2 designs of experiments (DoE-1 and DoE-2) were performed, and the effects of independent variables on the cream formulations responses were estimated. At different factor combinations, significant variability was observed in droplet size, consistency, hardness, compressibility, and adhesiveness with values ranging from 2.6 ± 0.9 to 10 ± 6 μm, 7.93 ± 0.05 to 13.53 ± 0.14 mm, 27.6 ± 0.3 to 58.4 ± 1.1 g, 38 ± 6 to 447 ± 37 g.s, and 25.7 ± 2.1 to 286 ± 33 g.s, respectively. The statistical analysis allowed determining the most influent factors. This study revealed the potential of Quality by Design methodology in understanding product variability, recognizing the most critical independent variables for the final product quality. This systematic approach in the pharmaceutical field will yield more robust products and processes, provisioning time and cost effective developments.

Formulation Strategies for Enhancing the Bioavailability of Silymarin: The State of the Art

Silymarin, a mixture of flavonolignan and flavonoid polyphenolic compounds extractable from milk thistle (Silybum marianum) seeds, has anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-viral activities potentially useful in the treatment of several liver disorders, such as chronic liver diseases, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Equally promising are the effects of silymarin in protecting the brain from the inflammatory and oxidative stress effects by which metabolic syndrome contributes to neurodegenerative diseases. However, although clinical trials have proved that silymarin is safe at high doses (>1500 mg/day) in humans, it suffers limiting factors such as low solubility in water (<50 μg/mL), low bioavailability and poor intestinal absorption. To improve its bioavailability and provide a prolonged silymarin release at the site of absorption, the use of nanotechnological strategies appears to be a promising method to potentiate the therapeutic action and promote sustained release of the active herbal extract. The purpose of this study is to review the different nanostructured systems available in literature as delivery strategies to improve the absorption and bioavailability of silymarin.

Cold atmospheric plasma and silymarin nanoemulsion synergistically inhibits human melanoma tumorigenesis via targeting HGF/c-MET downstream pathway

BACKGROUND

Recent studies claimed the important role of cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) with nanotechnology in cancer treatments. In this study, silymarin nanoemulsion (SN) was used along with air CAP as therapeutic agent to counter human melanoma.

METHODS

In this study, we examined the combined treatment of CAP and SN on G-361 human melanoma cells by evaluating cellular toxicity levels, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) levels, DNA damage, melanoma-specific markers, apoptosis, caspases and poly ADP-ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1) levels using flow cytometer. Dual-treatment effects on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF/c-MET) pathway, sphere formation and the reversal of EMT were also assessed using western blotting and microscopy respectively. SN and plasma-activated medium (PAM) were applied on tumor growth and body weight and melanoma-specific markers and the mesenchymal markers in the tumor xenograft nude mice model were checked.

RESULTS

Co-treatment of SN and air CAP increased the cellular toxicity in a time-dependent manner and shows maximum toxicity at 200 nM in 24 h. Intracellular RONS showed significant generation of ROS (< 3 times) and RNS (< 2.5 times) in dual-treated samples compared to control. DNA damage studies were assessed by estimating the level of γ-H2AX (1.8 times), PD-1 (> 2 times) and DNMT and showed damage in G-361 cells. Increase in Caspase 8,9,3/7 (> 1.5 times), PARP level (2.5 times) and apoptotic genes level were also observed in dual treated group and hence blocking HGF/c-MET pathway. Decrease in EMT markers (E-cadherin, YKL-40, N-cadherin, SNAI1) were seen with simultaneously decline in melanoma cells (BRAF, NAMPT) and stem cells (CD133, ABCB5) markers. In vivo results showed significant reduction in SN with PAM with reduction in tumor weight and size.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of air CAP using μ-DBD and the SN can minimize the malignancy effects of melanoma cells by describing HGF/c-MET molecular mechanism of acting on G-361 human melanoma cells and in mice xenografts, possibly leading to suitable targets for innovative anti-melanoma approaches in the future.