In vitro cytotoxic and antioxidant evaluation of quercetin loaded in ionic cross-linked chitosan nanoparticles

A Review of Recent Developments in Biopolymer Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems with Antioxidative Properties: Insights into the Last Five Years

In recent years, biopolymer-based nano-drug delivery systems with antioxidative properties have gained significant attention in the field of pharmaceutical research. These systems offer promising strategies for targeted and controlled drug delivery while also providing antioxidant effects that can mitigate oxidative stress-related diseases. Generally, the healthcare landscape is constantly evolving, necessitating the continual development of innovative therapeutic approaches and drug delivery systems (DDSs). DDSs play a pivotal role in enhancing treatment efficacy, minimizing adverse effects, and optimizing patient compliance. Among these, nanotechnology-driven delivery approaches have garnered significant attention due to their unique properties, such as improved solubility, controlled release, and targeted delivery. Nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanocapsules, nanotubes, etc., offer versatile platforms for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Additionally, biopolymer-based DDSs hold immense promise, leveraging natural or synthetic biopolymers to encapsulate drugs and enable targeted and controlled release. These systems offer numerous advantages, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity. The utilization of polysaccharides, polynucleotides, proteins, and polyesters as biopolymer matrices further enhances the versatility and applicability of DDSs. Moreover, substances with antioxidative properties have emerged as key players in combating oxidative stress-related diseases, offering protection against cellular damage and chronic illnesses. The development of biopolymer-based nanoformulations with antioxidative properties represents a burgeoning research area, with a substantial increase in publications in recent years. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent developments within this area over the past five years. It discusses various biopolymer materials, fabrication techniques, stabilizers, factors influencing degradation, and drug release. Additionally, it highlights emerging trends, challenges, and prospects in this rapidly evolving field.

Chitosan Nanoparticles Loaded with Quercetin and Valproic Acid: A Novel Approach for Enhancing Antioxidant Activity against Oxidative Stress in the SH-SY5Y Human Neuroblastoma Cell Line

BACKGROUND

Multiple drug-delivery systems obtained by loading nanoparticles (NPs) with different drugs that have different physicochemical properties present a promising strategy to achieve synergistic effects between drugs or overcome undesired effects. This study aims to develop a new NP by loading quercetin (Que) and valproic acid (VPA) into chitosan. In this context, our study investigated the antioxidant activities of chitosan NPs loaded with single and dual drugs containing Que against oxidative stress.

METHOD

The synthesis of chitosan NPs loaded with a single (Que or VPA) and dual drug (Que and VPA), the characterization of the NPs, the conducting of in vitro antioxidant activity studies, and the analysis of the cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity of the NPs in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell lines were performed.

RESULT

The NP applications that protected cell viability to the greatest extent against H2O2-induced cell damage were, in order, 96 µg/mL of Que-loaded chitosan NP (77.30%, 48 h), 2 µg/mL of VPA-loaded chitosan NP (70.06%, 24 h), 96 µg/mL of blank chitosan NP (68.31%, 48 h), and 2 µg/mL of Que- and VPA-loaded chitosan NP (66.03%, 24 h).

CONCLUSION

Our study establishes a successful paradigm for developing drug-loaded NPs with a uniform and homogeneous distribution of drugs into NPs. Chitosan NPs loaded with both single and dual drugs possessing antioxidant activity were successfully developed. The capability of chitosan NPs developed at the nanometer scale to sustain cell viability in SH-SY5Y cell lines implies the potential of intranasal administration of chitosan NPs for future studies, offering protective effects in central nervous system diseases.

Biogenic selenium nanoparticles and selenium/chitosan-Nanoconjugate biosynthesized by Streptomyces parvulus MAR4 with antimicrobial and anticancer potential

BACKGROUND

As antibiotics and chemotherapeutics are no longer as efficient as they once were, multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens and cancer are presently considered as two of the most dangerous threats to human life. In this study, Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) biosynthesized by Streptomyces parvulus MAR4, nano-chitosan (NCh), and their nanoconjugate (Se/Ch-nanoconjugate) were suggested to be efficacious antimicrobial and anticancer agents.

RESULTS

SeNPs biosynthesized by Streptomyces parvulus MAR4 and NCh were successfully achieved and conjugated. The biosynthesized SeNPs were spherical with a mean diameter of 94.2 nm and high stability. Yet, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate was semispherical with a 74.9 nm mean diameter and much higher stability. The SeNPs, NCh, and Se/Ch-nanoconjugate showed significant antimicrobial activity against various microbial pathogens with strong inhibitory effect on their tested metabolic key enzymes [phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and nitrate reductase (NR)]; Se/Ch-nanoconjugate was the most powerful agent. Furthermore, SeNPs revealed strong cytotoxicity against HepG2 (IC50 = 13.04 μg/ml) and moderate toxicity against Caki-1 (HTB-46) tumor cell lines (IC50 = 21.35 μg/ml) but low cytotoxicity against WI-38 normal cell line (IC50 = 85.69 μg/ml). Nevertheless, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate displayed substantial cytotoxicity against HepG2 and Caki-1 (HTB-46) with IC50 values of 11.82 and 7.83 μg/ml, respectively. Consequently, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate may be more easily absorbed by both tumor cell lines. However, it exhibited very low cytotoxicity on WI-38 with IC50 of 153.3 μg/ml. Therefore, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate presented the most anticancer activity.

CONCLUSION

The biosynthesized SeNPs and Se/Ch-nanoconjugate are convincingly recommended to be used in biomedical applications as versatile and potent antimicrobial and anticancer agents ensuring notable levels of biosafety, environmental compatibility, and efficacy.

In Vivo Cancer Microenvironment Responsive Glycan Receptor-Targeted Nanoparticles for Gemcitabine Delivery to Benzo[a]pyrene-Induced Lung Cancer Model

Targeted gemcitabine (GEB) loaded 5-N-acetyl-neuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) assembled chitosan nanoparticles (CA-NPs) were formulated by ionotropic gelation process and evaluated for physicochemical and morphological characterization, in vitro and in vivo studies in A-549 cells and lung cancer mice model, respectively. The mean diameter of GEB-CA-Neu5Ac-NPs determined by dynamic light scattering was 161.16 ± 7.70 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.303 ± 0.011 and its zeta potential and entrapment efficiency (%EE) were 40.3 ± 3.45 mv and 66.11 ± 1.94%, respectively. The in vitro cellular uptake studies showed that glycan receptor-targeted nanoparticles deliver significantly more amount (p < 0.001) of GEB into the A-549 lung cancerous cells than non-targeted nanoparticles. The cytotoxicity study using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay clearly demonstrated that GEB-CA-Neu5Ac-NPs have lower IC50 value (6.39 ± 3.78 µg/ml) than others groups that showed that the greater lung cancerous cells inhibition potential of targeted nanoparticles. The in vivo biodistribution of the GEB-loaded 5-N-acetyl-neuraminic acid conjugated chitosan nanoparticles was revealed that targeted nanoparticles showed higher accumulation and retention for an extended period of time due to the active targeting ability of Neu5Ac to glycan receptors. Histopathological examination showed significant recovery in the physiological architecture upon administration of targeted nanoparticles. The glycan receptor-targeted nanoparticles treated groups showed a significant decline in the number of metastatic lung epithelial cells, as compared to the untreated positive control group (p < 0.001) confirming higher anticancer efficacy of the GEB-CA-Neu5Ac-NPs.

Chitosan-Based Nanogels Designed for Betanin-Rich Beetroot Extract Transport: Physicochemical and Biological Aspects

Nanotechnology has emerged as a possible solution to improve phytochemicals' limitations. The objective of the present study was to encapsulate beetroot extract (BR Ext) within a chitosan (CS)-based nanogel (NG) designed via ionic crosslinking with tripolyphosphate (TPP) for betanin (Bet) delivery, mainly in the ophthalmic environment. BR Ext is rich in betanin (Bet) according to thin layer chromatography (TLC), UV-visible spectroscopy, and HPLC analysis. NG presented a monodisperse profile with a size of 166 ± 6 nm and low polydispersity (0.30 ± 0.03). ζ potential (ζ-Pot) of +28 ± 1 is indicative of a colloidally stable system. BR Ext encapsulation efficiency (EE) was 45 ± 3%. TEM, with the respective 3D-surface plots and AFM, showed spherical-elliptical-shaped NG. The BR Ext release profile was biphasic with a burst release followed by slow and sustained phase over 12 h. Mucoadhesion assay demonstrated interactions between NG with mucin. Moreover, NG provided photoprotection and pH stability to BR Ext. FRAP and ABTS assays confirmed that BR Ext maintained antioxidant activity into NG. Furthermore, in vitro assays using human retinal cells displayed absence of cytotoxicity as well as an efficient protection against injury agents (LPS and H2O2). NGs are a promising platform for BR Ext encapsulation, exerting controlled release for ophthalmological use.

Advancements in Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Pulmonary Drug Delivery

The evolution of respiratory diseases represents a considerable public health challenge, as they are among the leading causes of death worldwide. In this sense, in addition to the high prevalence of diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, and lung cancer, emerging respiratory diseases, particularly those caused by members of the coronavirus family, have contributed to a significant number of deaths on a global scale over the last two decades. Therefore, several studies have been conducted to optimize the efficacy of treatments against these diseases, focusing on pulmonary drug delivery using nanomedicine. Thus, the development of nanocarriers has emerged as a promising alternative to overcome the limitations of conventional therapy, by increasing drug bioavailability at the target site and reducing unwanted side effects. In this context, nanoparticles composed of chitosan (CS) show advantages over other nanocarriers because chitosan possesses intrinsic biological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and mucoadhesive capacity. Moreover, CS nanoparticles have the potential to enhance drug stability, prolong the duration of action, improve drug targeting, control drug release, optimize dissolution of poorly soluble drugs, and increase cell membrane permeability of hydrophobic drugs. These properties could optimize the performance of the drug after its pulmonary administration. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the potential of chitosan nanoparticles for pulmonary drug delivery, highlighting how their biological properties can improve the treatment of pulmonary diseases, including their synergistic action with the encapsulated drug.

Chitosan-Based Nano Systems for Natural Antioxidants in Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer is a major cause of death globally, accounting for around 13% of all deaths. Chemotherapy, the common treatment for cancer, can have side effects that lead to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an increase in oxidative stress in the body. Antioxidants are important for maintaining the health of cells and helping the immune system function properly. They play a crucial role in balancing the body's internal environment. Using natural antioxidants is an alternative to mitigate the harmful effects of oxidative stress. However, around 80% of natural antioxidants have limited effectiveness when taken orally because they do not dissolve well in water or other solvents. This poor solubility affects their ability to be absorbed by the body and limits their bioavailability. One strategy that has been considered is to increase their water solubility to increase their oral bioavailability. Chitosan-based nanoparticle (CSNP) systems have been extensively explored due to their reliability and simpler synthesis routes. This review focuses on the various methods of chitosan-based nanoformulation for developing effective oral dosage forms for natural antioxidants based on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics properties. Chitosan (CS) could be a model, because of its wide use in polymeric NPs research, thus providing a better understanding of the role of vehicles that carry natural antioxidants in maintaining the stability and enhancing the performance of cancer drugs.

Intranasal Nanotransferosomal Gel for Quercetin Brain Targeting: I. Optimization, Characterization, Brain Localization, and Cytotoxic Studies

Numerous neurological disorders have a pathophysiology that involves an increase in free radical production in the brain. Quercetin (QER) is a nutraceutical compound that shields the brain against oxidative stress-induced neurodegeneration. Nonetheless, its low oral bioavailability diminishes brain delivery. Therefore, the current study aimed to formulate QER-loaded transferosomal nanovesicles (QER-TFS) in situ gel for QER brain delivery via the intranasal route. This study explored the impacts of lipid amount, edge activator (EA) amount, and EA type on vesicle diameter, entrapment, and cumulative amount permeated through nasal mucosa (24 h). The optimum formulation was then integrated into a thermosensitive gel after its physical and morphological characteristics were assessed. Assessments of the optimized QER-TFS showed nanometric vesicles (171.4 ± 3.4 nm) with spherical shapes and adequate entrapment efficiency (78.2 ± 2.8%). The results of short-term stability and high zeta potential value (-32.6 ± 1.4 mV) of QER-TFS confirmed their high stability. Compared with the QER solution, the optimized QER-TFS in situ gel formulation exhibited sustained release behavior and augmented nasal mucosa permeability. CT scanning of rat brains demonstrated the buildup of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in the brains of all treatment groups, with a greater level of GNPs noted in the rats given the transferosomal gel. Additionally, in vitro studies on PCS-200-014 cells revealed minimal cytotoxicity of QER-TFS in situ gel. Based on these results, the developed transferosomal nanovesicles may be a suitable nanocarrier for QER brain targeting through the intranasal route.

Design of Chitosan-Coated, Quercetin-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles for Enhanced PSMA-Specific Activity on LnCap Prostate Cancer Cells

Nanoparticles are designed to entrap drugs at a high concentration, escape clearance by the immune system, be selectively taken up by cancer cells, and release bioactives in a rate-modulated manner. In this study, quercetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were prepared and optimized to determine whether coating with chitosan would increase the cellular uptake of the nanoparticles and if the targeting ability of folic acid as a ligand can provide selective toxicity and enhanced uptake in model LnCap prostate cancer cells, which express high levels of the receptor prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), compared to PC-3 cells, that have relatively low PSMA expression. A design of experiments approach was used to optimize the PLGA nanoparticles to have the maximum quercetin loading, optimal cationic charge, and folic acid coating. We examined the in vitro release of quercetin and comparative cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of the optimized PLGA nanoparticles and revealed that the targeted nano-system provided sustained, pH-dependent quercetin release, and higher cytotoxicity and cellular uptake, compared to the non-targeted nano-system on LnCap cells. There was no significant difference in the cytotoxicity or cellular uptake between the targeted and non-targeted nano-systems on PC-3 cells (featured by low levels of PSMA), pointing to a PSMA-specific mechanism of action of the targeted nano-system. The findings suggest that the nano-system can be used as an efficient nanocarrier for the targeted delivery and release of quercetin (and other similar chemotherapeutics) against prostate cancer cells.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Delivery of Natural Bioactive Agents: Recent Advances and Challenges

In the last few decades, several natural bioactive agents have been widely utilized in the treatment and prevention of many diseases owing to their unique and versatile therapeutic effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and neuroprotective action. However, their poor aqueous solubility, poor bioavailability, low GIT stability, extensive metabolism as well as short duration of action are the most shortfalls hampering their biomedical/pharmaceutical applications. Different drug delivery platforms have developed in this regard, and a captivating tool of this has been the fabrication of nanocarriers. In particular, polymeric nanoparticles were reported to offer proficient delivery of various natural bioactive agents with good entrapment potential and stability, an efficiently controlled release, improved bioavailability, and fascinating therapeutic efficacy. In addition, surface decoration and polymer functionalization have opened the door to improving the characteristics of polymeric nanoparticles and alleviating the reported toxicity. Herein, a review of the state of knowledge on polymeric nanoparticles loaded with natural bioactive agents is presented. The review focuses on frequently used polymeric materials and their corresponding methods of fabrication, the needs of such systems for natural bioactive agents, polymeric nanoparticles loaded with natural bioactive agents in the literature, and the potential role of polymer functionalization, hybrid systems, and stimuli-responsive systems in overcoming most of the system drawbacks. This exploration may offer a thorough idea of viewing the polymeric nanoparticles as a potential candidate for the delivery of natural bioactive agents as well as the challenges and the combating tools used to overcome any hurdles.

Quercetin Attenuates Nitroglycerin-Induced Migraine Headaches by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Mediators

This study aimed to investigate the antimigraine potential of quercetin in migraine pain induced by nitroglycerin (NTG), 10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection in rats. Quercetin was administered orally for 1 week, and behavioral parameters associated with pain were assessed 30 min after NTG injection. At the end of the study, the rats were killed so that immunohistochemical examination of their brains could be performed. The time and frequency of rearing and sniffing in the category of exploratory behavior, walking in the category of locomotor behavior, and total time spent in the light chamber were reduced in the disease control group compared with the normal group during the assessment of behavioral parameters. Pathologic migraine criteria, such as increased levels of calcitonin gene-related peptide and increased release of c-fos cells, were more prominent in the caudal nucleus triceminalis of the NTG control group. In the treatment groups, behavioral and pathological measures were less severe after pretreatment with quercetin at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg. Therefore, it was concluded that quercetin improved the pain behavior of migraine patients in the NTG-induced migraine rat model. Quercetin is thought to have antimigraine effects due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Quercetin may therefore be a novel agent that can treat or prevent migraine pain and associated avoidance behaviors.