1
|
Shih WL, Fang CT, Chen PJ. Chapter XX Antiviral Treatment and Cancer Control. Recent Results Cancer Res 2021; 217:325-354. [PMID: 33200371 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-57362-1_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human papilloma virus (HPV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) contribute to about 10-15% global burden of human cancers. Conventional chemotherapy or molecular target therapies have been used to treat virus-associated cancers. However, a more proactive approach would be the use of antiviral treatment to suppress or eliminate viral infections to prevent the occurrence of cancer in the first place. Antiviral treatments against chronic HBV and HCV infection have achieved this goal, with significant reduction in the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in treated patients. Antiviral treatments for EBV, KSHV, and HTLV-1 had limited success in treating refractory EBV-associated lymphoma and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder, KSHV-associated Kaposi's sarcoma in AIDS patients, and HTLV-1-associated acute, chronic, and smoldering subtypes of adult T-cell lymphoma, respectively. Therapeutic HPV vaccine and RNA interference-based therapies for treating HPV-associated infection or cervical cancers also showed some encouraging results. Taken together, antiviral therapies have yielded promising results in cancer prevention and treatment. More large-scale studies in a real-world setting are necessary to confirm the efficacy of antiviral therapy. Further investigation for more effective and convenient antiviral regimens warrants more attention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Liang Shih
- Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Tai Fang
- Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Jer Chen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Csoboz B, Rasheed K, Sveinbjørnsson B, Moens U. Merkel cell polyomavirus and non-Merkel cell carcinomas: guilty or circumstantial evidence? APMIS 2020; 128:104-120. [PMID: 31990105 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the major causative factor of the rare but aggressive cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Two characteristics of MCPyV-positive MCCs are integration of the viral genome and expression of a truncated version of one of its oncogenic proteins, namely large T antigen. The strong association of MCPyV with MCC development has incited researchers to further investigate a possible role of this virus in other cancers. However, many of the examples displaying the presence of the virus in the various non-MCC cancers are not able to clearly demonstrate a direct connection between cellular transformation and the presence of the virus. The prevalence of the virus is significantly lower in non-MCC cancers compared to MCCs, with a lower level of viral load and sparse viral protein expression. Moreover, the state of the viral genome, and whether a truncated large T antigen is expressed, has rarely been investigated. Nonetheless, considering the strong oncogenic potential of MCPyV proteins in MCC, the plausible contribution of MCPyV to transformation and cancer growth in non-MCC tumors cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, the absence of MCPyV in cancers does not exclude a hit-and-run mechanism, or the oncoproteins of MCPyV may potentiate the neoplastic process mediated by co-infecting oncoviruses such as high-risk human papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr virus. The current review is focusing on the available data describing the presence of MCPyV in non-MCC tumors, with an aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the corresponding literature and to discuss the potential contribution of MCPyV to non-MCC cancer in light of this.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Balint Csoboz
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kashif Rasheed
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Baldur Sveinbjørnsson
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
|
4
|
Patel P, Modi C, McLellan B, Ohri N. Radiotherapy for inoperable Merkel cell carcinoma: a systematic review and pooled analysis. Dermatol Pract Concept 2018; 8:149-157. [PMID: 29785334 PMCID: PMC5955084 DOI: 10.5826/dpc.0802a15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cumulative data on radiation monotherapy for Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is lacking. Objective We sought to synthesize all available data on treatment outcomes for radiation monotherapy for inoperable stage I-III MCC. Methods We performed a systematic review of the current literature. Articles published in English in the PubMed database up to July 29, 2016, were evaluated. Results Eight case reports, 4 case series, and 6 retrospective studies, yielding 68 patients, were included in our analysis. Of the 24 stage I/II patients treated with local irradiation, 6 (25%) relapsed and 1 (4%) died from MCC. Of the 24 stage I/II patients treated with local and regional nodal irradiation, 5 (21%) relapsed and 2 (8%) died from MCC. Of the 20 stage III patients treated with local and regional nodal irradiation, 12 (60%) relapsed and 7 (35%) died from MCC. Conclusions Radiation monotherapy appears to be a reasonable treatment modality for patients with inoperable stage I-III MCC. Further investigation with prospective studies is needed to draw definitive conclusions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parth Patel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| | - Chirag Modi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| | - Beth McLellan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| | - Nitin Ohri
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vandeven N, Nghiem P. Rationale for immune-based therapies in Merkel polyomavirus-positive and -negative Merkel cell carcinomas. Immunotherapy 2017; 8:907-21. [PMID: 27381685 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2016-0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but often deadly skin cancer that is typically caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Polyomavirus T-antigen oncoproteins are persistently expressed in virus-positive MCCs (˜80% of cases), while remarkably high numbers of tumor-associated neoantigens are detected in virus-negative MCCs, suggesting that both MCC subsets may be immunogenic. Here we review mechanisms by which these immunogenic tumors evade multiple levels of host immunity. Additionally, we summarize the exciting potential of diverse immune-based approaches to treat MCC. In particular, agents blocking the PD-1 axis have yielded strikingly high response rates in MCC as compared with other solid tumors, highlighting the potential for immune-mediated treatment of this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Vandeven
- Department of Medicine (Pathology & Dermatology), University of Washington, USA
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Department of Medicine (Pathology & Dermatology), University of Washington, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Over the last 10 years, the number of identified polyomaviruses has grown to more than 35 subtypes, including 13 in humans. The polyomaviruses have similar genetic makeup, including genes that encode viral capsid proteins VP1, 2, and 3 and large and small T region proteins. The T proteins play a role in viral replication and have been implicated in viral chromosomal integration and possible dysregulation of growth factor genes. In humans, the Merkel cell polyomavirus has been shown to be highly associated with integration and the development of Merkel cell cancers. The first two human polyomaviruses discovered, BKPyV and JCPyV, are the causative agents for transplant-related kidney disease, BK commonly and JC rarely. JC has also been strongly associated with the development of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a rare but serious infection in untreated HIV-1-infected individuals and in other immunosuppressed patients including those treated with monoclonal antibody therapies for autoimmune diseases systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, or multiple sclerosis. The trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSAPyV) may be the causative agent of the rare skin disease trichodysplasia spinulosa. The remaining nine polyomaviruses have not been strongly associated with clinical disease to date. Antiviral therapies for these infections are under development. Antibodies specific for each of the 13 human polyomaviruses have been identified in a high percentage of normal individuals, indicating a high rate of exposure to each of the polyomaviruses in the human population. PCR methods are now available for detection of these viruses in a variety of clinical samples.
Collapse
|
7
|
Wahl RU, Braunschweig T, Ghassemi A, Rübben A. Immunotherapy with imiquimod and interferon alfa for metastasized Merkel cell carcinoma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 23:e150-3. [PMID: 27122984 DOI: 10.3747/co.23.2878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (mcc) is a highly aggressive neuroendocrine tumour of the skin. Remission rates are high with chemotherapy in patients with metastasis, but without any improvement in overall survival. We present the case of a 90-year-old woman with facial mcc. After radiation and surgery, the mcc recurred with widespread cutaneous and regional lymph node metastases. The metastases were treated with weekly intralesional injections of 1-2×10(6) IU interferon alfa-2a, accompanied by topical imiquimod 5% cream 3 times weekly. After partial regression, subcutaneous pegylated interferon alfa-2b was added at a dose of 30 μg weekly, which was then increased to 50 μg weekly. At 4 months after the start of immunotherapy, all cutaneous metastases and the intralesionally treated lymph node metastases receded. Interruption or reduction of systemic interferon application resulted in locoregional relapses that were successfully treated with surgery or intralesional interferon injections. The patient remains alive 30 months after initiation of immunotherapy, suggesting that locally metastasized mcc might be able to be controlled with local and systemic immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R U Wahl
- Department of Dermatology, rwth Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - T Braunschweig
- Department of Pathology, rwth Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - A Ghassemi
- Department of Oral, Maxillofacial and Plastic Facial Surgery, rwth Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - A Rübben
- Department of Dermatology, rwth Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hashida Y, Kamioka M, Tanaka M, Hosokawa S, Murakami M, Nakajima K, Kikuchi H, Fujieda M, Sano S, Daibata M. Ecology of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Healthy Skin Among Individuals in an Asian Cohort. J Infect Dis 2016; 213:1708-16. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiw040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
|
9
|
Sadeghi F, Ghanadan A, Salehi Vaziri M, Bokharaei Salim F, Monavari SH, Keyvani H. Merkel cell polyomavirus infection in a patient with merkel cell carcinoma: a case report. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2015; 8:e17849. [PMID: 25964849 PMCID: PMC4419364 DOI: 10.5812/jjm.17849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2014] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and highly aggressive malignancy of the skin which occurs mainly in old people and is very uncommon in young individuals. A new tumor virus belonging to the Polyomaviridae family; Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) has recently been identified in more than 80% of MCCs. Case Presentation: We conducted a retrospective review on the archives of the Department of Pathology; Imam Khomeini Hospital Cancer Institute affiliated to Tehran University of Medical Sciences to confirm the MCC samples and we found medical records and samples of a young case with MCC who developed leg skin and scalp tumor six and seven years after bone marrow transplantation, respectively. We analyzed patient formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples for the presence of MCPyV DNA using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method, and the PCR amplicons were subjected to DNA sequencing. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus DNA was detected in both tumors from patient and sequence analysis of the viral LT3 region showed a close homology to strains circulating worldwide. Conclusions: The findings of this study are consistent with the hypothesis that local, systemic, or tumor-induced immunosuppression may allow the MCPyV to initiate skin aggressive cancer. It is necessary to maintain regular check over patients taking immunosuppressive medications for MCPyV infection. Since there is not any information about detection and molecular biology analysis of MCPyV among Iranian patients with MCC, this study provides more information about MCC and MCPyV in Iran.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Farzin Sadeghi
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Alireza Ghanadan
- Department of Dermatopathology, Razi Skin Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Mostafa Salehi Vaziri
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Farah Bokharaei Salim
- Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Seyed Hamidreza Monavari
- Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Hossein Keyvani
- Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
- Corresponding author: Hossein Keyvani, Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran. Tel: +98-2188602205, Fax: +98-2188602205, E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
The role of Merkel cell polyomavirus and other human polyomaviruses in emerging hallmarks of cancer. Viruses 2015; 7:1871-901. [PMID: 25866902 PMCID: PMC4411681 DOI: 10.3390/v7041871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyomaviruses are non-enveloped, dsDNA viruses that are common in mammals, including humans. All polyomaviruses encode the large T-antigen and small t-antigen proteins that share conserved functional domains, comprising binding motifs for the tumor suppressors pRb and p53, and for protein phosphatase 2A, respectively. At present, 13 different human polyomaviruses are known, and for some of them their large T-antigen and small t-antigen have been shown to possess oncogenic properties in cell culture and animal models, while similar functions are assumed for the large T- and small t-antigen of other human polyomaviruses. However, so far the Merkel cell polyomavirus seems to be the only human polyomavirus associated with cancer. The large T- and small t-antigen exert their tumorigenic effects through classical hallmarks of cancer: inhibiting tumor suppressors, activating tumor promoters, preventing apoptosis, inducing angiogenesis and stimulating metastasis. This review elaborates on the putative roles of human polyomaviruses in some of the emerging hallmarks of cancer. The reciprocal interactions between human polyomaviruses and the immune system response are discussed, a plausible role of polyomavirus-encoded and polyomavirus-induced microRNA in cancer is described, and the effect of polyomaviruses on energy homeostasis and exosomes is explored. Therapeutic strategies against these emerging hallmarks of cancer are also suggested.
Collapse
|
11
|
Chapuis AG, Afanasiev OK, Iyer JG, Paulson KG, Parvathaneni U, Hwang JH, Lai I, Roberts IM, Sloan HL, Bhatia S, Shibuya KC, Gooley T, Desmarais C, Koelle DM, Yee C, Nghiem P. Regression of metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma following transfer of polyomavirus-specific T cells and therapies capable of re-inducing HLA class-I. Cancer Immunol Res 2014; 2:27-36. [PMID: 24432305 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-13-0087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer that typically requires the persistent expression of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) oncoproteins that can serve as ideal immunotherapeutic targets. Several immune evasion mechanisms are active in MCC including down-regulation of HLA class-I expression on tumor cells and dysfunctional endogenous MCPyV-specific CD8 T cell responses. To overcome these obstacles, we combined local and systemic immune therapies in a 67-year-old man, who developed metastatic MCPyV-expressing MCC. Intralesional IFNβ-1b or targeted single-dose radiation was administered as a pre-conditioning strategy to reverse the down-regulation of HLA-I expression noted in his tumors and to facilitate the subsequent recognition of tumor cells by T cells. This was followed by the adoptive transfer of ex vivo expanded polyclonal, polyomavirus-specific T cells as a source of reactive antitumor immunity. The combined regimen was well-tolerated and led to persistent up-regulation of HLA-I expression in the tumor and a durable complete response in two of three metastatic lesions. Relative to historical controls, the patient experienced a prolonged period without development of additional distant metastases (535 days compared to historic median of 200 days, 95% confidence interval = 154-260 days). The transferred CD8(+) T cells preferentially accumulated in the tumor tissue, remained detectable and functional for >200 days, persisted with an effector phenotype, and exhibited evidence of recent in vivo activation and proliferation. The combination of local and systemic immune stimulatory therapies was well-tolerated and may be a promising approach to overcome immune evasion in virus-driven cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aude G Chapuis
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Olga K Afanasiev
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA ; Department of Medicine (Dermatology), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jayasri G Iyer
- Department of Medicine (Dermatology), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kelly G Paulson
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA ; Department of Medicine (Dermatology), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Joo Ha Hwang
- Division of Gastroenterology, UWMC, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ivy Lai
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ilana M Roberts
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Heather L Sloan
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Shailender Bhatia
- Department of Medicine (Medical Oncology), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kendall C Shibuya
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ted Gooley
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - David M Koelle
- Department of Medicine (Dermatology), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA ; Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA ; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA ; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, FHCRC, Seattle, WA, USA ; Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Cassian Yee
- Program in Immunology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA ; Department of Medicine (Dermatology), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Paulson KG, Tegeder A, Willmes C, Iyer JG, Afanasiev OK, Schrama D, Koba S, Thibodeau R, Nagase K, Simonson WT, Seo A, Koelle DM, Madeleine M, Bhatia S, Nakajima H, Sano S, Hardwick JS, Disis ML, Cleary MA, Becker JC, Nghiem P. Downregulation of MHC-I expression is prevalent but reversible in Merkel cell carcinoma. Cancer Immunol Res 2014; 2:1071-9. [PMID: 25116754 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-14-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive, polyomavirus-associated skin cancer. Robust cellular immune responses are associated with excellent outcomes in patients with MCC, but these responses are typically absent. We determined the prevalence and reversibility of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) downregulation in MCC, a potentially reversible immune-evasion mechanism. Cell-surface MHC-I expression was assessed on five MCC cell lines using flow cytometry as well as immunohistochemistry on tissue microarrays representing 114 patients. Three additional patients were included who had received intralesional IFN treatment and had evaluable specimens before and after treatment. mRNA expression analysis of antigen presentation pathway genes from 35 MCC tumors was used to examine the mechanisms of downregulation. Of note, 84% of MCCs (total n = 114) showed reduced MHC-I expression as compared with surrounding tissues, and 51% had poor or undetectable MHC-I expression. Expression of MHC-I was lower in polyomavirus-positive MCCs than in polyomavirus-negative MCCs (P < 0.01). The MHC-I downregulation mechanism was multifactorial and did not depend solely on HLA gene expression. Treatment of MCC cell lines with ionizing radiation, etoposide, or IFN resulted in MHC-I upregulation, with IFNs strongly upregulating MHC-I expression in vitro, and in 3 of 3 patients treated with intralesional IFNs. MCC tumors may be amenable to immunotherapy, but downregulation of MHC-I is frequently present in these tumors, particularly those that are positive for polyomavirus. This downregulation is reversible with any of several clinically available treatments that may thus promote the effectiveness of immune-stimulating therapies for MCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly G Paulson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Andrew Tegeder
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Christoph Willmes
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jayasri G Iyer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Olga K Afanasiev
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - David Schrama
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Shinichi Koba
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Renee Thibodeau
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Kotaro Nagase
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - William T Simonson
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Aaron Seo
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - David M Koelle
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
| | | | - Shailender Bhatia
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Hideki Nakajima
- Department of Dermatology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
| | - Shigetoshi Sano
- Department of Dermatology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
| | | | - Mary L Disis
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | | | - Jürgen C Becker
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria. Department for Translational Dermato-Oncology (DKTK), University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Merkel cell carcinoma - recent advances in the biology, diagnostics and treatment. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2014; 53:536-46. [PMID: 24811434 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2014.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 04/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an uncommon primary cutaneous carcinoma with neuroendocrine differentiation. Since recent discovery of MCCs strong association with Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), there has been a rapid increase in the understanding of the carcinomas genetics, molecular biology and pathogenesis. In our study, we reviewed recent advances and controversies concerning MCC histogenesis, epidemiology, diagnostic and prognostic markers. We analyzed the association of MCPyV with MCC and the possible new targets for therapy. We also examined English-based literature regarding MCC pathogenesis published between 2008 and 2013, which lead to a deeper understanding of the topic. Our study showed that the association of MCPyV strongly influences the course of MCC. Additionally, it has been shown that a immunological response to MCPyV may in the future give hope to identify new therapeutic strategies in treatment of this fatal malignancy. This article is part of a Directed Issue entitled: Rare Cancers.
Collapse
|
14
|
Hashida Y, Imajoh M, Kamioka M, Taniguchi A, Kuroda N, Hayashi K, Nakajima H, Sano S, Daibata M. Phylogenetic analysis of Merkel cell polyomavirus based on full-length LT and VP1 gene sequences derived from neoplastic tumours in Japanese patients. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:135-141. [DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.058149-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Most Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) gene sequences have been reported from Western countries and few data are available for the virus sequences from other geographical areas, especially Asia. Thus, we performed phylogenetic analyses based on the nucleotide sequences of the full-length large T-antigen (LT) and viral protein 1 (VP1) genes derived from a variety of cancers in Japanese patients and compared them with sequences from Caucasians. The LT and VP1 gene-based phylogenetic trees identified two main genetic clades. One clade comprised strains isolated from Caucasians, whereas all of the Japanese tumour-derived MCPyV strains belonged to another clade. These findings confirm that most of the MCPyV strains present in Japan form a clade, distinct from Caucasian strains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yumiko Hashida
- Department of Microbiology and Infection, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Masayuki Imajoh
- Department of Microbiology and Infection, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Mikio Kamioka
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Ayuko Taniguchi
- Division of Hematology and Respiratory Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Naoto Kuroda
- Department of Pathology, Kochi Red Cross Hospital, Kochi 780-8561, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Hayashi
- Division of Molecular Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Pathology, Tottori University Faculty of Medicine, Yonago 683-8503, Japan
| | - Hideki Nakajima
- Department of Dermatology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Shigetoshi Sano
- Department of Dermatology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Masanori Daibata
- Department of Microbiology and Infection, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) contribute to about 10-15 % global burden of human cancers. Conventional chemotherapy or molecular target therapies have been used to treat virus-associated cancers. However, a more proactive approach would be the use of antiviral treatment to suppress or eliminate viral infections to prevent the occurrence of cancer in the first place. Antiviral treatments against chronic HBV and HCV infections have achieved this goal, with significant reduction in the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in treated patients. Antiviral treatments for EBV, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) had limited success in treating refractory EBV-associated lymphoma and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder, KSHV-associated Kaposi's sarcoma in AIDS patients, and HTLV-1-associated acute, chronic, and smoldering subtypes of adult T-cell lymphoma, respectively. Therapeutic HPV vaccine and RNA-interference-based therapies for treating HPV-associated cervical cancers also showed some encouraging results. Taken together, antiviral therapies have yielded promising results in cancer prevention and treatment. More large-scale studies are necessary to confirm the efficacy of antiviral therapy. Further investigation for more effective and convenient antiviral regimens warrants more attention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Liang Shih
- Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, clinically aggressive cutaneous neuroendocrine neoplasm with a high mortality rate. Though the etiology is not precisely known, Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA has been found recently in a large percentage of MCC tumors. Other suggested risk factors include sun exposure, immunosuppression, and a history of prior malignancy. Work up of patients with MCC most notably includes nodal staging via clinical examination or sentinel lymph node biopsy. The prognosis for most patients with MCC is poor, and the rarity of MCC precludes the prospective, randomized clinical trials necessary to elucidate optimum treatment protocols. Most published data support the use of a multimodality approach centered around surgical excision with negative margins, sentinel lymph node biopsy to establish the presence or absence of nodal metastases, adjuvant radiothearpy to decrease the risk of recurrence, and systemic chemotherapy in the case of widespread disease.
Collapse
|
17
|
Miller NJ, Bhatia S, Parvathaneni U, Iyer JG, Nghiem P. Emerging and mechanism-based therapies for recurrent or metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2013; 14:249-63. [PMID: 23436166 PMCID: PMC3651762 DOI: 10.1007/s11864-013-0225-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer with a disease-specific mortality of approximately 40 %. The association of MCC with a recently discovered polyomavirus, combined with the increased incidence and mortality of MCC among immunocompromised patients, highlight the importance of the immune system in controlling this cancer. Initial management of MCC is summarized within the NCCN guidelines and in recently published reviews. The high rate of recurrent and metastatic disease progression in MCC, however, presents a major challenge in a cancer that lacks mechanism-based, disease-specific therapies. Traditional treatment approaches have focused on cytotoxic chemotherapy that, despite frequent initial efficacy, rarely provides durable responses and has high morbidity among the elderly. In addition, the immunosuppressive nature of chemotherapy is of concern when treating a virus-associated cancer for which survival is unusually tightly linked to immune function. With a median survival of 9.6 months after development of an initial metastasis (n = 179, described herein), and no FDA-approved agents for this cancer, there is an urgent need for more effective treatments. We review diverse management options for patients with advanced MCC, with a focus on emerging and mechanism-based therapies, some of which specifically target persistently expressed viral antigens. These treatments include single-dose radiation and novel immunotherapies, some of which are in clinical trials. Due to their encouraging efficacy, low toxicity, and lack of immune suppression, these therapies may offer viable alternatives to traditional cytotoxic chemotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie J. Miller
- Departments of Medicine/Dermatology, Pathology, University of Washington, 850 Republican Street, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Shailender Bhatia
- Department of Medicine/Medical Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, 825 Eastlake Ave E, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Upendra Parvathaneni
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 356043, Seattle, WA 98195-6043, USA
| | - Jayasri G. Iyer
- Departments of Medicine/Dermatology, Pathology, University of Washington, 850 Republican Street, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Departments of Medicine/Dermatology, Pathology, University of Washington, 850 Republican Street, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, 825 Eastlake Ave E, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Imajoh M, Hashida Y, Nakajima H, Sano S, Daibata M. Prevalence and viral DNA loads of three novel human polyomaviruses in skin cancers from Japanese patients. J Dermatol 2013; 40:657-60. [DOI: 10.1111/1346-8138.12180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Imajoh
- Departments of Microbiology and Infection; Kochi Medical School; Kochi University; Nankoku; Kochi; Japan
| | - Yumiko Hashida
- Departments of Microbiology and Infection; Kochi Medical School; Kochi University; Nankoku; Kochi; Japan
| | - Hideki Nakajima
- Departments of Dermatology; Kochi Medical School; Kochi University; Nankoku; Kochi; Japan
| | - Shigetoshi Sano
- Departments of Dermatology; Kochi Medical School; Kochi University; Nankoku; Kochi; Japan
| | - Masanori Daibata
- Departments of Microbiology and Infection; Kochi Medical School; Kochi University; Nankoku; Kochi; Japan
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
The prevalence of Merkel cell polyomavirus in Japanese patients with Merkel cell carcinoma. J Dermatol Sci 2013; 70:99-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2013.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 02/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
20
|
Fukumoto H, Sato Y, Hasegawa H, Katano H. Frequent detection of Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA in sera of HIV-1-positive patients. Virol J 2013; 10:84. [PMID: 23496956 PMCID: PMC3608173 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), human polyomavirus-6 (HPyV6), and human polyomavirus-7 (HPyV7) were identified as viruses shed from the skin. Serological analysis revealed that these viruses are common among the general population. However, there is little information about the presence of MCPyV, HPyV6, and HPyV7 in the sera and tissues of immunocompromised individuals. The aims of this study are to know if immune status affects the presence of MCPyV, HPyV6, and HPyV7 in the serum, and to reveal the presence of these viruses in diseased tissues of unknown etiology. Methods Sera from HIV-1-positive and -negative patients were examined by real-time PCR and nested PCR detecting MCPyV, HPyV6 and HPyV7. In addition, diseased tissue samples of unknown etiology were examined. Results Nine out of 23 serum samples (39.1%) from HIV-1-positive patients who had not received anti-retroviral therapy were positive for MCPyV, which is significantly higher than HIV-1-negative patients (6/110, 5.5%, P < 0.01, Chi-square test). MCPyV DNA was detected in tissue samples of Merkel cell carcinoma (22/30 [73%]), encephalitis (4/19 [21%]), pneumonia (3/17 [18%]), and myocarditis (8/14 [57%]). With the exception of Merkel cell carcinoma samples, MCPyV-positive tissues showed low copy numbers of MCPyV DNA by real-time PCR and no expression of the MCPyV large T antigen by immunohistochemistry. HPyV6 and HPyV7 were rarely detected in serum and tissue samples. Conclusions These results suggest that MCPyV viremia is associated with host immunity, and that circulation of HPyV6 and HPyV7 in the serum is rare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Fukumoto
- Department of Pathology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Triozzi PL, Fernandez AP. The role of the immune response in merkel cell carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 5:234-54. [PMID: 24216706 PMCID: PMC3730301 DOI: 10.3390/cancers5010234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer. The Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is implicated in its pathogenesis. Immune mechanisms are also implicated. Patients who are immunosuppressed have an increased risk. There is evidence that high intratumoral T-cell counts and immune transcripts are associated with favorable survival. Spontaneous regressions implicate immune effector mechanisms. Immunogenicity is also supported by observation of autoimmune paraneoplastic syndromes. Case reports suggest that immune modulation, including reduction of immune suppression, can result in tumor regression. The relationships between MCPyV infection, the immune response, and clinical outcome, however, remain poorly understood. Circulating antibodies against MCPyV antigens are present in most individuals. MCPyV-reactive T cells have been detected in both MCC patients and control subjects. High intratumoral T-cell counts are also associated with favorable survival in MCPyV-negative MCC. That the immune system plays a central role in preventing and controlling MCC is supported by several observations. MCCs often develop, however, despite the presence of humoral and cellular immune responses. A better understanding on how MCPyV and MCC evade the immune response will be necessary to develop effective immunotherapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre L. Triozzi
- Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-216-445-5141; Fax: +1-216-636-2498
| | - Anthony P. Fernandez
- Departments of Dermatology and Anatomic Pathology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; E-Mail:
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Detection of Merkel cell polyomavirus in cervical squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas from Japanese patients. Virol J 2012; 9:154. [PMID: 22876976 PMCID: PMC3545865 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-9-154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) was identified originally in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare form of human skin neuroendocrine carcinoma. Evidence of MCPyV existence in other forms of malignancy such as cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) is growing. Cervical cancers became the focus of our interest in searching for potentially MCPyV-related tumors because: (i) the major histological type of cervical cancer is the SCC; (ii) the uterine cervix is a common site of neuroendocrine carcinomas histologically similar to MCCs; and (iii) MCPyV might be transmitted during sexual interaction as demonstrated for human papillomavirus (HPV). In this study, we aimed to clarify the possible presence of MCPyV in cervical SCCs from Japanese patients. Cervical adenocarcinomas (ACs) were also studied. Results Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples from 48 cervical SCCs and 16 cervical ACs were examined for the presence of the MCPyV genome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing analyses. PCR analysis revealed that 9/48 cervical SCCs (19%) and 4/16 cervical ACs (25%) were positive for MCPyV DNA. MCPyV-specific PCR products were sequenced to compare them with reference sequences. The nucleotide sequences in the MCPyV large T (LT)-sequenced region were the same among MCPyV-positive cervical SCCs and AC. Conversely, in the MCPyV viral protein 1 (VP1)-sequenced region, two cervical SCCs and three cervical ACs showed several nucleotide substitutions, of which three caused amino acid substitutions. These sequencing results suggested that three MCPyV variants of the VP1 were identified in our cases. Immunohistochemistry showed that the LT antigen was expressed in tumor cells in MCPyV-positive samples. Genotyping of human HPV in the MCPyV-positive samples revealed that infected HPVs were HPV types 16, 31 and 58 for SCCs and HPV types 16 and 18 for ACs. Conclusions This study provides the first observation that MCPyV coexists in a subset of HPV-associated cervical cancers from Japanese patients. The prevalence of MCPyV in these lesions was close to that observed in the cutaneous SCCs. Further worldwide epidemiological surveys are warranted to determine the possible association of MCPyV with pathogenesis of cervical cancers.
Collapse
|
23
|
Koba S, Paulson KG, Nagase K, Tegeder A, Thibodeau R, Iyer JG, Narisawa Y, Nghiem P. Diagnostic biopsy does not commonly induce intratumoral CD8 T cell infiltration in Merkel cell carcinoma. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41465. [PMID: 22859987 PMCID: PMC3409202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Merkel cell carcinoma is a polyomavirus-associated cancer that is strongly linked with T lymphocyte immune suppression in epidemiologic studies. CD8+ T cell infiltration into MCC tumors (intratumoral) has recently been shown to be strongly predictive of improved survival. In contrast, the presence of CD8+ T cells at the border of the tumor (peritumoral) had no independent prognostic value. Spontaneous regression has been reported for MCC approximately one thousand times more often than would be expected given the frequency of this cancer. Many of these events began shortly after biopsy, and in some cases lymphocytic infiltration was described. Methodology/Principal Findings To determine whether CD8+ lymphocyte infiltration in MCC tumors is commonly altered by biopsy.33 MCC patients who had microscopic confirmation of MCC on both an initial biopsy and a re-excision specimen were included in this study. Intratumoral and peritumoral CD8 lymphocyte infiltration was quantitated using immunohistochemistry and compared using the paired t-test in biopsy versus re-excision samples. There was a trend toward increased CD8 infiltration after biopsy in a peritumoral (‘stalled’) pattern (p = 0.08), however, biopsy was not associated with a significant increase in CD8 T cells in the clinically more important intratumoral location (p = 0.58). Conclusions/Significance The initial diagnostic biopsy for MCC does not commonly alter intratumoral CD8+ T cell infiltration, suggesting it does not directly induce immunologic recognition of this cancer. Because CD8 infiltration is typically stable after biopsy, this parameter may be useful to assess the efficacy of future immune therapies for this virus-associated, immunogenic, often-lethal cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shinichi Koba
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Kelly G. Paulson
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Kotaro Nagase
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Andrew Tegeder
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Renee Thibodeau
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jayasri G. Iyer
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Yutaka Narisawa
- Division of Dermatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Dermatology/Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Ota S, Ishikawa S, Takazawa Y, Goto A, Fujii T, Ohashi KI, Fukayama M. Quantitative analysis of viral load per haploid genome revealed the different biological features of Merkel cell polyomavirus infection in skin tumor. PLoS One 2012; 7:e39954. [PMID: 22768181 PMCID: PMC3386999 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) has recently been identified in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), an aggressive cancer that occurs in sun-exposed skin. Conventional technologies, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunohistochemistry, have produced conflicting results for MCPyV infections in non-MCC tumors. Therefore, we performed quantitative analyses of the MCPyV copy number in various skin tumor tissues, including MCC (n = 9) and other sun exposure-related skin tumors (basal cell carcinoma [BCC, n = 45], actinic keratosis [AK, n = 52], Bowen’s disease [n = 34], seborrheic keratosis [n = 5], primary cutaneous anaplastic large-cell lymphoma [n = 5], malignant melanoma [n = 5], and melanocytic nevus [n = 6]). In a conventional PCR analysis, MCPyV DNA was detected in MCC (9 cases; 100%), BCC (1 case; 2%), and AK (3 cases; 6%). We then used digital PCR technology to estimate the absolute viral copy number per haploid human genome in these tissues. The viral copy number per haploid genome was estimated to be around 1 in most MCC tissues, and there were marked differences between the MCC (0.119–42.8) and AK (0.02–0.07) groups. PCR-positive BCC tissue showed a similar viral load as MCC tissue (0.662). Immunohistochemistry with a monoclonal antibody against the MCPyV T antigen (CM2B4) demonstrated positive nuclear localization in most of the high-viral-load tumor groups (8 of 9 MCC and 1 BCC), but not in the low-viral-load or PCR-negative tumor groups. These results demonstrated that MCPyV infection is possibly involved in a minority of sun-exposed skin tumors, including BCC and AK, and that these tumors display different modes of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Ota
- Department of Pathology, Chiba University Hospital, University of Chiba, Chuo, Chiba, Chiba, Japan
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shumpei Ishikawa
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Yutaka Takazawa
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akiteru Goto
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeshi Fujii
- Department of Pathology, Toranomon Hospital, Minato, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken-ichi Ohashi
- Department of Pathology, Toranomon Hospital, Minato, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masashi Fukayama
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly aggressive neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin demonstrating a high propensity of recurrence and metastasis. Its 5-year disease-specific survival rate is only about 60%. Although MCC is still regarded as a very rare tumor entity, its incidence is rapidly increasing. In this regard, the American Cancer Society estimated almost 1500 new cases in the United States in 2008. RECENT FINDINGS The newly identified Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) has been found associated to most MCC cases. Nevertheless, the distinct molecular pathogenesis of MCC and its link to MCV is not yet fully understood. Moreover, the impact of MCV positivity on the course of disease and prognosis of MCC patients is controversially discussed. SUMMARY This review summarizes recent findings on MCC pathogenesis with a special emphasis on the impact of MCV, presents an overview of clinical aspects, and discusses treatment options.
Collapse
|
26
|
Moens U, Ludvigsen M, Van Ghelue M. Human polyomaviruses in skin diseases. PATHOLOGY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 2011:123491. [PMID: 21941687 PMCID: PMC3173887 DOI: 10.4061/2011/123491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Polyomaviruses are a family of small, nonenveloped viruses with a circular double-stranded DNA genome of ∼5,000 base pairs protected by an icosahedral protein structure. So far, members of this family have been identified in birds and mammals. Until 2006, BK virus (BKV), JC virus (JCV), and simian virus 40 (SV40) were the only polyomaviruses known to circulate in the human population. Their occurrence in individuals was mainly confirmed by PCR and the presence of virus-specific antibodies. Using the same methods, lymphotropic polyomavirus, originally isolated in monkeys, was recently shown to be present in healthy individuals although with much lower incidence than BKV, JCV, and SV40. The use of advanced high-throughput sequencing and improved rolling circle amplification techniques have identified the novel human polyomaviruses KI, WU, Merkel cell polyomavirus, HPyV6, HPyV7, trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus, and HPyV9. The skin tropism of human polyomaviruses and their dermatopathologic potentials are the focus of this paper.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ugo Moens
- Institute of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
|
28
|
Merkel cell polyomavirus status is not associated with clinical course of Merkel cell carcinoma. J Invest Dermatol 2011; 131:1631-8. [PMID: 21562568 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2011.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The majority of Merkel cell carcinomas (MCCs) are associated with the recently identified Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV). However, as it is still unclear to which extent the presence of MCV impacts tumor characteristics or clinical outcome, we correlated the MCV status of tumor lesions obtained from 174 MCC patients including 38 MCC patients from Australia and 138 MCC patients from Germany with clinical characteristics, histomorphology, immunohistochemistry, and course of the disease. MCV DNA was present in 86% of MCCs and, in contrast to previous reports, no significant difference in MCV prevalence was present between Australian and German MCC cases. When patients were stratified according to their MCV status, only tumor localization (P=0.001), gender (P=0.024), and co-morbidity, i.e., frequency of patients with previous skin tumors (P=0.024), were significantly different factors. In contrast, year of birth and diagnosis, age at diagnosis, or histological type and features representing the oncogenic phenotype such as mitotic rate or expression of p16, p53, RB1, and Ki67 were not significantly different between MCV-positive and MCV-negative MCCs. MCV status also did not influence recurrence-free, overall, and MCC-specific survival significantly. In summary, although MCV-positive and MCV-negative MCCs may have different etiologies, these tumors have comparable clinical behaviors and prognosis.
Collapse
|
29
|
Paik JY, Hall G, Clarkson A, Lee L, Toon C, Colebatch A, Chou A, Gill AJ. Immunohistochemistry for Merkel cell polyomavirus is highly specific but not sensitive for the diagnosis of Merkel cell carcinoma in the Australian population. Hum Pathol 2011; 42:1385-90. [PMID: 21453956 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2010.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated a high frequency of detection of Merkel cell polyomavirus in Merkel cell carcinoma. However, most of these studies are from European or North American centers that have relatively low sun exposure and may have a higher incidence of virus-driven oncogenesis compared with the highly sun-exposed but predominantly fair-skinned Australian population. We performed immunohistochemistry for Merkel cell polyomavirus on 104 cases of Merkel cell carcinoma and 74 cases of noncutaneous small cell-undifferentiated carcinoma from 3 major Australian centers. Nineteen (18.3%) cases of Merkel cell carcinoma showed positive staining for Merkel cell polyomavirus versus 1 (1.3%) of small cell-undifferentiated carcinoma. All 15 cases (14.3%) of Merkel cell carcinoma with areas of mixed squamous differentiation showed negative staining. We found positive staining in only 3 (7.7%) of 39 Merkel cell carcinoma from the head and neck (the most sun-exposed area) versus 16 (24.6%) of 65 of tumors from other sites (P < .05). Our findings support the concept of a Merkel cell polyomavirus-driven and a non-Merkel cell polyomavirus-driven (primarily sun-dependent) pathway in Merkel cell carcinoma carcinogenesis, with the latter being significantly more frequent in Australia and in mixed squamous-Merkel cell carcinoma (which is also more frequent in Australia). Although immunohistochemistry for Merkel cell polyomavirus seems to be highly specific in all populations, the low incidence of Merkel cell polyomavirus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma in a highly sun-exposed population limits its diagnostic utility in this setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Y Paik
- The Department of Anatomical Pathology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, 2065 Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Presence of Merkel cell polyomavirus in Japanese cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. J Clin Virol 2011; 50:37-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2010.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2010] [Revised: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
31
|
Agelli M, Clegg LX, Becker JC, Rollison DE. The etiology and epidemiology of merkel cell carcinoma. Curr Probl Cancer 2010; 34:14-37. [PMID: 20371072 DOI: 10.1016/j.currproblcancer.2010.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Agelli
- Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|