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Janakiefski L, Guicherit IC, Saylor MM. Preschoolers ask questions about unknown words on video chat and in live interactions at similar rates. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 238:105780. [PMID: 37774502 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a major increase in digital interactions in early experience. A crucial question, given expanding virtual platforms, is whether preschoolers' active word learning behaviors extend to their interactions over video chat. When not provided with sufficient information to link new words to meanings, preschoolers drive their word learning by asking questions. In person, 5-year-olds focus their questions on unknown words compared with known words, highlighting their active word learning. Here, we investigated whether preschoolers' question-asking over video chat differs from in-person question-asking. In the study, 5-year-olds were instructed to move toys in response to known and unknown verbs on a video conferencing call (i.e., Zoom). Consistent with in-person results, video chat participants (n = 18) asked more questions about unknown words than about known words. The rate of question-asking about words across video chat and in-person formats did not differ. Differences in the types of questions asked about words indicate, however, that although video chat does not hinder preschoolers' active word learning, the use of video chat may influence how preschoolers request information about words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Janakiefski
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.
| | - Isabelle C Guicherit
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Megan M Saylor
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
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2
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Barr R, Kirkorian H. Reexamining models of early learning in the digital age: Applications for learning in the wild. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2023; 12:457-472. [PMID: 38223884 PMCID: PMC10783145 DOI: 10.1037/mac0000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Young children are growing up in an increasingly complicated digital world. Laboratory-based research shows it is cognitively demanding to process and transfer information presented on screens during early childhood. Multiple explanations for this cognitive challenge have been proposed. This review provides an updated comprehensive framework that integrates prior theoretical explanations to develop new testable hypotheses. The review also considers the how the research can be generalized to the "wild" where children engage with multiple commercial products daily. It includes real-world applications for improving children's learning and memory from screen-based media by adding supportive cues and reducing distraction and interference. The review concludes with a call for future collaborative research between researchers, content developers, and families to better understand age-related changes in both short-term and long-term learning from digital media. Finally, policy makers need to be involved to ensure equitable access and to create a safe digital space for all families.
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3
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Kirkorian H, Simmering V. Searching in the sand: Protracted video deficit in U.S. preschoolers' spatial recall using a continuous search space. Dev Sci 2023:e13376. [PMID: 36916718 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Young children exhibit a video deficit for spatial recall, learning less from on-screen than in-person demonstrations. Some theoretical accounts emphasize memory constraints (e.g., insufficient retrieval cues, competition between memory representations). Such accounts imply memory representations are graded, yet video deficit studies measuring spatial recall operationalize memory retrieval as dichotomous (success or failure). The current study tested a graded-representation account using a spatial recall task with a continuous search space (i.e., sandbox) rather than discrete locations. With this more sensitive task, a protracted video deficit for spatial recall was found in children 4-5 years old (n = 51). This may be due to weaker memory representations in the screen condition, evidenced by higher variability and greater perseverative bias. In general, perseverative bias decreased with repeated trials. The discussion considers how the results support a graded-representation account, potentially explaining why children might exhibit a video deficit in some tasks but not others. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The task used a continuous search space (sandbox), making it more difficult and sensitive than spatial recall tasks used in prior video deficit research. Spatial recall among 4- and 5-year-old children was more variable after watching hiding events on screen via live video feed than through a window. Children's spatial recall from screens was more susceptible to proactive interference, evidenced by more perseverative bias in an A-not-B design. The results demonstrate memory representations blend experiences that accumulate over time and explain why the video deficit may be protracted for more difficult tasks.
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4
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Soy Telli B, Hoicka E. Humor and social cognition: Correlational and predictive relations in 3- to 47-month-olds. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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5
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Guellai B, Somogyi E, Esseily R, Chopin A. Effects of screen exposure on young children's cognitive development: A review. Front Psychol 2022; 13:923370. [PMID: 36059724 PMCID: PMC9431368 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The past decade has witnessed a rapid increase in the use of screen media in families, and infants are exposed to screens at younger ages than ever before. The objective of this review is twofold: (1) to understand the correlates and demographic factors determining exposure to screens, including interactive screens, when available, and (2) to study the effects of watching screens and using touchscreens on cognitive development, during the first 3 years of life. We argue that the effects of screen viewing depend mostly on contextual aspects of the viewing rather than on the quantity of viewing. That context includes the behavior of adult caregivers during viewing, the watched content in relation to the child's age, the interactivity of the screen and whether the screen is in the background or not. Depending on the context, screen viewing can have positive, neutral or negative effects on infants' cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahia Guellai
- Département de Psychologie, Université Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France
| | - Eszter Somogyi
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Health, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Rana Esseily
- Département de Psychologie, Université Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France
| | - Adrien Chopin
- Institut de la Vision, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Paris, France
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6
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Revisiting an extant framework: Concerns about culture and task generalization. Behav Brain Sci 2022; 45:e257. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x22001200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The target article elaborates upon an extant theoretical framework, “Imitation and Innovation: The Dual Engines of Cultural Learning.” We raise three major concerns: (1) There is limited discussion of cross-cultural universality and variation; (2) overgeneralization of overimitation and omission of other social learning types; and (3) selective imitation in infants and toddlers is not discussed.
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7
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Fong FTK, Imuta K, Redshaw J, Nielsen M. The digital social partner: Preschool children display stronger imitative tendency in
screen‐based
than live learning. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/hbe2.280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frankie T. K. Fong
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Kana Imuta
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Jonathan Redshaw
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Mark Nielsen
- Early Cognitive Development Centre, School of Psychology University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Faculty of Humanities University of Johannesburg Johannesburg South Africa
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8
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Can infants use video to update mental representations of absent objects? Infant Behav Dev 2021; 64:101623. [PMID: 34388413 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Before their second birthday, infants can update their knowledge based on what someone tells them, but can they do so based on what a video shows them? The current study explored whether infants can update their representation of an absent object's properties after seeing a video of something happening to it, following seminal work showing that they can update their representation after being told about something happening to it (Ganea et al., 2007). It thus adapted an existing paradigm for testing infants' understanding of references to absent objects (using language) to investigate a different symbolic medium (video). Twenty-two-month-olds first played with a toy and later saw on video that the toy underwent a change in state while they were out of the room. Infants in the current study did not subsequently identify the toy based on this new information, whereas those in previous research did. Infants this age thus appear less likely to update their representation of an absent object's properties using video than using language. This result is consistent with the possibility that infants may understand the representational function of symbolic objects later in development than they understand the representational function of language. It also aligns with evidence of the video deficit in which infants learn less effectively from video than from firsthand experience.
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Infant media use: A harm reduction approach. Infant Behav Dev 2021; 64:101610. [PMID: 34298189 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
There are a myriad of potentially harmful developmental outcomes associated with infant digital media use. Studies revealing risk associated with early media use have informed the current American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommendations that discourage most digital media use among children under 18 months of age. Recent research advances, however, suggest potential benefits of technology engagement in this age group. Additionally, surveys of parents reveal that most infants engage with digital media for at least 30 min a day, exceeding the AAP recommendations. In response to these discoveries and cultural trends, some scholars have made compelling cases to adapt the AAP guidelines for infants. A helpful model for developing infant digital media use guidelines for families may be the harm reduction approach. The intent of this review is to suggest adaptations to the AAP guidelines for infant media engagement using a harm reduction framework. This review describes the challenge of restrictive guidelines, briefly summarizes the harm reduction approach, provides a review of risks and benefits associated with infant media use in each developmental domain (physical, cognitive, and socioemotional), summarizes correlates of infant screen media use, and examines intervention strategies for reducing screen time. The paper concludes with examples of possible adaptations to current AAP infant media use recommendations using harm reduction and bioecological frameworks.
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Nielsen M, Fong FTK, Whiten A. Social learning from media: The need for a culturally diachronic developmental psychology. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2021; 61:317-334. [PMID: 34266569 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2021.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Since the proliferation of television sets into households began over half a century ago there has been widespread interest in the impact that viewing has on young children's development. Such interest has grown with the increasing availability of smart phones and tablets. In this review we examine the literature documenting human social learning and how this learning is impacted when the instructing agent appears on a screen instead of face-to-face. We then explore the shifting nature of screen-based media, with a focus on the increasingly socio-normative manner information is portrayed. We discuss how the changing nature of screen technology might be altering how children interpret what they see, and raise the possibility that this may render prevailing evidence as historical documentation, rather than setting out established developmental milestones that transcend the period in which they were documented. We contend that recognizing the significance of historically changing contexts in developmental psychology is timely when the COVID-19 climate is pushing data collection on-line for many labs, often using tasks that were developed primarily for face-to-face contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Nielsen
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia; Faculty of Humanities, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Frankie T K Fong
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia; Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Andrew Whiten
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
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11
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Lenninger S, Persson T, van de Weijer J, Sonesson G. Mirror, Peephole and Video - The Role of Contiguity in Children's Perception of Reference in Iconic Signs. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1622. [PMID: 32760329 PMCID: PMC7371794 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study looked at the extent to which 2-year-old children benefited from information conveyed by viewing a hiding event through an opening in a cardboard screen, seeing it as live video, as pre-recorded video, or by way of a mirror. Being encouraged to find the hidden object by selecting one out of two cups, the children successfully picked the baited cup significantly more often when they had viewed the hiding through the opening, or in live video, than when they viewed it in pre-recorded video, or by way of a mirror. All conditions rely on the perception of similarity. The study suggests, however, that contiguity – i.e., the perception of temporal and physical closeness between events – rather than similarity is the principal factor accounting for the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Lenninger
- Centre for Languages and Literature, Cognitive Semiotics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Early Childhood Education, Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden
| | - Tomas Persson
- Department of Philosophy, Cognitive Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Göran Sonesson
- Centre for Languages and Literature, Cognitive Semiotics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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12
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Salsa A, Gariboldi MB, Vivaldi R, Rodríguez J. Geometric maps as tools for different purposes in early childhood. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 186:33-44. [PMID: 31195209 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This study examined whether and how young children make spontaneous use of geometric maps for two different purposes: to determine and to represent the locations of objects. A total of 64 2.5-, 3-, 3.5-, and 4-year-old children solved a task with two phases in counterbalanced order; they needed to use a map to locate a toy hidden in a referent space (retrieval) and to indicate on the symbol with a sticker the location of the hidden toy (map making). Results show that there is a clear developmental progression, with 2.5-year-olds failing both phases, 3- and 3.5-year-olds succeeding only in the map making phase, and 4-year-olds succeeding in both the map making and retrieval phases. The differences between making use of maps to represent locations and locating objects in space allow for a closer comprehension of map reading as a progressive sequenced process and the factors at play as children develop symbolic understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Analía Salsa
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto Rosario de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Educación (IRICE), Rosario, Argentina.
| | - María Belén Gariboldi
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto Rosario de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Educación (IRICE), Rosario, Argentina
| | - Romina Vivaldi
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto Rosario de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Educación (IRICE), Rosario, Argentina
| | - Jimena Rodríguez
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto Rosario de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Educación (IRICE), Rosario, Argentina
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13
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Troseth GL, Flores I, Stuckelman ZD. When Representation Becomes Reality: Interactive Digital Media and Symbolic Development. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2019; 56:65-108. [PMID: 30846051 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
One challenge of using an interesting object such as a scale model as a symbol for something else is children's deep interest in the object itself. Attending to the model (the symbol) as a toy, children do not use information about where in the model a tiny dog is hiding to mentally represent where a larger dog is hiding in the full-sized room (the referent). Young children use pictures in this way because they are relatively uninteresting as objects. Today, interactive images on touchscreens function as virtual objects on which to act and which respond to the user's actions. In this chapter, we examine how interactive symbolic media (e.g., touchscreens, video chat, augmented reality) might affect children's symbolic development and the way that psychologists think about representational objects. Young children's learning about and from interactive media may depend upon adults scaffolding children's use of these new cultural tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgene L Troseth
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.
| | - Israel Flores
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Zachary D Stuckelman
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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14
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Troseth GL, Strouse GA, Verdine BN, Saylor MM. Let's Chat: On-Screen Social Responsiveness Is Not Sufficient to Support Toddlers' Word Learning From Video. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2195. [PMID: 30483198 PMCID: PMC6243085 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Joint engagement with a speaker is one cue children may use to establish that an interaction is relevant to them and worthy of attention. People on pre-recorded video cannot engage contingently with a viewer in shared experiences, possibly leading to deficits in learning from video relative to learning from responsive face-to-face encounters. One hundred and thirty two toddlers (24 and 30 months old) were offered referential social cues disambiguating a novel word's meaning in one of four conditions: responsive live (a speaker was present and engaged with children); unresponsive video (a speaker on video looked at the camera and smiled at scripted times); unresponsive live (although present, the speaker behaved as she did on the unresponsive video), and responsive video (a speaker on closed-circuit video engaged with children, as in video chat). Children of both ages reliably learned the word in the responsive live condition, and older children (30 months) learned in the unresponsive live condition. Neither group learned in the responsive or unresponsive video conditions. The results show that the addition of communicative social cues to the video presentation via video chat was not sufficient to support learning in this case. Rather, toddlers' transfer and generalization of words presented on video chat may depend on other contextual factors, such as co-viewers who scaffold their learning. Live, responsive video as implemented in this and prior studies is compared, with implications for the use of video chat via the Internet with young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgene L. Troseth
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Gabrielle A. Strouse
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- Division of Counseling and Psychology in Education, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, United States
| | - Brian N. Verdine
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Megan M. Saylor
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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15
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Heimann M, Edorsson A, Sundqvist A, Koch FS. Thirteen- to Sixteen-Months Old Infants Are Able to Imitate a Novel Act from Memory in Both Unfamiliar and Familiar Settings But Do Not Show Evidence of Rational Inferential Processes. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2186. [PMID: 29312055 PMCID: PMC5735368 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gergely et al. (2002) reported that children imitated a novel action - illuminating a light-box by using the forehead - after a delay significantly more often if the hands of the experimenter had been visible in comparison with if they had been covered. In an attempt to explore these findings we conducted two studies with a total N of 63 children. Both studies investigated deferred imitation of the action in two conditions, with the hands of the experimenter visible or covered, but the settings differed. Study 1 (n = 30; mean age = 16.6 months) was carried out in an unfamiliar environment (a laboratory setting) while Study 2 (n = 33; mean age = 13.3 months) was conducted in familiar surroundings (at home or at day care). The results showed that 50% of the children in Study 1 and 42.4% in Study 2 evidenced deferred imitation as compared to only 4.9% (n = 2) in the baseline condition. However, in none of the studies did the children use inferential processes when imitating, we detected no significant differences between the two conditions, hands visible or hands covered. The findings add to the validity of the head touch procedure as a measure of declarative-like memory processes in the pre-verbal child. At the same time the findings question the robustness of the concept 'rational imitation,' it seems not as easy as expected to elicit a response based on rational inferential processes in this age group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Heimann
- Infant and Child Lab, Division of Psychology, Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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16
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Infants' and adults' looking behavior does not indicate perceptual distraction for constrained modelled actions - An eye-tracking study. Infant Behav Dev 2017; 47:103-111. [PMID: 28391125 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
When observing a novel action, infants pay attention to the model's constraints when deciding whether to imitate this action or not. Gergely et al. (2002) found that more 14-month-olds copied a model's use of her head to operate a lamp when she used her head while her hands were free than when she had to use this means because it was the only means available to her (i.e., her hands were occupied). The perceptional distraction account (Beisert et al., 2012) claims that differences between conditions in terms of the amount of attention infants paid to the modeled action caused the differences in infants' performance between conditions. In order to investigate this assumption we presented 14-month-olds (N=34) with an eye-tracking paradigm and analyzed their looking behavior when observing the head-touch demonstration in the two original conditions. Subsequently, they had the chance to operate the apparatus themselves, and we measured their imitative responses. In order to explore the perceptional processes taking place in this paradigm in adulthood, we also presented adults (N=31) with the same task. Apart from the fact that we did not replicate the findings in imitation with our participants, the eye-tracking results do not support the perceptional distraction account: infants did not statistically differ - not even tendentially - in their amount of looking at the modeled action in both conditions. Adults also did not statistically differ in their looking at the relevant action components. However, both groups predominantly observed the relevant head action. Consequently, infants and adults do not seem to attend differently to constrained and unconstrained modelled actions.
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17
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Designing and using digital books for learning: The informative case of young children and video. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcci.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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Sheehan KJ, Uttal DH. Children's Learning from Touch Screens: A Dual Representation Perspective. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1220. [PMID: 27570516 PMCID: PMC4981688 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Parents and educators often expect that children will learn from touch screen devices, such as during joint e-book reading. Therefore an essential question is whether young children understand that the touch screen can be a symbolic medium – that entities represented on the touch screen can refer to entities in the real world. Research on symbolic development suggests that symbolic understanding requires that children develop dual representational abilities, meaning children need to appreciate that a symbol is an object in itself (i.e., picture of a dog) while also being a representation of something else (i.e., the real dog). Drawing on classic research on symbols and new research on children’s learning from touch screens, we offer the perspective that children’s ability to learn from the touch screen as a symbolic medium depends on the effect of interactivity on children’s developing dual representational abilities. Although previous research on dual representation suggests the interactive nature of the touch screen might make it difficult for young children to use as a symbolic medium, the unique interactive affordances may help alleviate this difficulty. More research needs to investigate how the interactivity of the touch screen affects children’s ability to connect the symbols on the screen to the real world. Given the interactive nature of the touch screen, researchers and educators should consider both the affordances of the touch screen as well as young children’s cognitive abilities when assessing whether young children can learn from it as a symbolic medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Sheehan
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston IL, USA
| | - David H Uttal
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston IL, USA
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19
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Myers LJ, LeWitt RB, Gallo RE, Maselli NM. Baby FaceTime: can toddlers learn from online video chat? Dev Sci 2016; 20. [PMID: 27417537 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
There is abundant evidence for the 'video deficit': children under 2 years old learn better in person than from video. We evaluated whether these findings applied to video chat by testing whether children aged 12-25 months could form relationships with and learn from on-screen partners. We manipulated social contingency: children experienced either real-time FaceTime conversations or pre-recorded Videos as the partner taught novel words, actions and patterns. Children were attentive and responsive in both conditions, but only children in the FaceTime group responded to the partner in a temporally synced manner. After one week, children in the FaceTime condition (but not the Video condition) preferred and recognized their Partner, learned more novel patterns, and the oldest children learned more novel words. Results extend previous studies to demonstrate that children under 2 years show social and cognitive learning from video chat because it retains social contingency. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/rTXaAYd5adA.
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Choi K, Kirkorian HL. Touch or Watch to Learn? Toddlers’ Object Retrieval Using Contingent and Noncontingent Video. Psychol Sci 2016; 27:726-36. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797616636110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The experiment reported here was designed to examine the effect of contingent interaction with touch-screen devices on toddlers’ use of symbolic media (video) during an object-retrieval task. Toddlers (24–36 months old; N = 75) were randomly assigned to watch an animated character hiding on screen either in a no-contingency video (requiring no action), a general-contingency video (accepting touch input anywhere on screen), or a specific-contingency video (requiring touch input on a particular area of interest). After the hiding event, toddlers searched for the character on a corresponding felt board. Across all trials, younger toddlers were more likely to search correctly after a specific-contingency video than after a no-contingency video, which suggests that contingent interaction designed to emphasize specific information on screen may promote learning. However, this effect was reversed for older toddlers. We interpret our findings with respect to the selective encoding of target features during hiding events and the relative strength of memory traces during search.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koeun Choi
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison
| | - Heather L. Kirkorian
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison
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Kirkorian HL, Lavigne HJ, Hanson KG, Troseth GL, Demers LB, Anderson DR. Video Deficit in Toddlers’ Object Retrieval: What Eye Movements Reveal About Online Cognition. INFANCY 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/infa.12102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lindsay B. Demers
- Psychological and Brain Sciences University of Massachusetts‐Amherst
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Abstract
There is little evidence that infants learn from infant-oriented educational videos and television programming. This 4-week longitudinal experiment investigated 15-month-olds' (N = 92) ability to learn American Sign Language signs (e.g., patting head for hat) from at-home viewing of instructional video, either with or without parent support, compared to traditional parent instruction and a no-exposure control condition. Forced-choice, elicited production, and parent report measures indicate learning across all three exposure conditions, with a trend toward more robust learning in the parent support conditions, regardless of medium. There were no differences between experimental and control conditions in the acquisition of corresponding verbal labels. This constitutes the first experimental evidence of infants' ability to learn expressive communication from commercially available educational videos.
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Urakawa S, Takamoto K, Ishikawa A, Ono T, Nishijo H. Selective Medial Prefrontal Cortex Responses During Live Mutual Gaze Interactions in Human Infants: An fNIRS Study. Brain Topogr 2014; 28:691-701. [PMID: 25367848 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-014-0414-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in processing multimodal communicative ostensive signals in infants, we measured cerebral hemodynamic responses by using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) during the social interactive play "peek-a-boo", in which both visual (direct gaze) and auditory (infant-directed speech) stimuli were presented. The infants (mean age, around 7 months) sat on their mother's lap, equipped with an NIRS head cap, and looked at a partner's face during "peek-a-boo". An eye-tracking system simultaneously monitored the infants' visual fixation patterns. The results indicate that, when the partner presented a direct gaze, rather than an averted gaze, toward an infant during social play, the infant fixated on the partner's eye region for a longer duration. Furthermore, hemodynamic activity increased more prominently dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in response to social play with a partner's direct gaze compared to an averted gaze. In contrast, hemodynamic activity increased in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (R-lPFC) regardless of a partner's eye gaze direction. These results indicate that a partner's direct gaze shifts an infant's attention to the partner's eyes for interactive communication, and specifically activates the mPFC. The differences in hemodynamic responses between the mPFC and R-lPFC suggest functional differentiation within the PFC, and a specific role of the mPFC in the perception of face-to-face communication, especially in mutual gaze, which is essential for social interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susumu Urakawa
- Department of Neurophysiotherapy, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani 2630, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan.,Department of System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani 2630, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Kouichi Takamoto
- Department of Neurophysiotherapy, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani 2630, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Akihiro Ishikawa
- Research & Development Medical Systems Division, Shimadzu Corporation, Nishinokyoukuwabaracho 1, Nakagyouku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Taketoshi Ono
- Department of Neurophysiotherapy, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani 2630, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Hisao Nishijo
- Department of System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani 2630, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan.
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Reiß M, Becker A, Krist H. Gibt es einen Videodefiziteffekt bei Aufgaben zur Theory of Mind? ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ENTWICKLUNGSPSYCHOLOGIE UND PADAGOGISCHE PSYCHOLOGIE 2014. [DOI: 10.1026/0049-8637/a000112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Studie bestand darin, einen möglichen Einfluss des Darbietungsmodus auf die Leistung von Vorschulkindern in einer Aufgabe zur Theory of Mind (ToM) zu überprüfen. Dazu wurden die Leistungen von 94 Kindern zwischen 3 und 5 Jahren in einer klassischen Ortsverlagerungsaufgabe zum Verständnis falscher Überzeugungen ( Wimmer & Perner, 1983 ) untersucht. Den Kindern wurde die Originalgeschichte entweder live oder als Videofilm präsentiert. Erstmalig konnte ein signifikanter Effekt des Darbietungsmodus in einer Aufgabe zur ToM nachgewiesen werden. Dieser ergab sich in der Altersgruppe der 4-Jährigen. Unabhängig vom Darbietungsmodus antworteten 3-Jährige überzufällig falsch und 5-Jährige überzufällig korrekt. Der nachgewiesene Effekt des Darbietungsmodus wird vor dem Hintergrund bereits bestehender Theorien zum sogenannten Videodefiziteffekt (VDE) diskutiert.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam Reiß
- Universität Greifswald, Institut für Psychologie
| | - Antje Becker
- Universität Greifswald, Institut für Psychologie
| | - Horst Krist
- Universität Greifswald, Institut für Psychologie
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Taylor G, Herbert JS. Infant and adult visual attention during an imitation demonstration. Dev Psychobiol 2014; 56:770-82. [PMID: 24037972 PMCID: PMC4209116 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Deferred imitation tasks have shown that manipulations at encoding can enhance infant learning and memory performance within an age, suggesting that brain maturation alone cannot fully account for all developmental changes in early memory abilities. The present study investigated whether changes in the focus of attention during learning might contribute to improving memory abilities during infancy. Infants aged 6, 9, and 12 months, and an adult comparison group, watched a video of a puppet imitation demonstration while visual behavior was recorded on an eye tracker. Overall, infants spent less time attending to the video than adults, and distributed their gaze more equally across the demonstrator and puppet stimulus. In contrast, adults directed their gaze primarily to the puppet. When infants were tested for their behavioral recall of the target actions, "imitators" were shown to have increased attention to the person and decreased attention to the background compared to "non-imitators." These results suggest that attention during learning is related to memory outcome and that changes in attention may be one mechanism by which manipulations to the learning event may enhance infant recall memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Taylor
- Department of Psychology, University of SheffieldWestern Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Jane S Herbert
- Department of Psychology, University of SheffieldWestern Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
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Barr R, Brito N, Simcock G. Revisiting the effect of reminders on infants' media memories: does the encoding format matter? Dev Psychol 2013; 49:2112-9. [PMID: 23356528 PMCID: PMC11187983 DOI: 10.1037/a0031759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
With the present research, the authors examined whether reminders could maintain 18-month-olds' memories generated from picture books and videos. Infants (N = 98) were shown a series of target actions in a picture book or on video. Either 24 hr or 2 weeks prior to a 4-week deferred imitation test, they were exposed to a reminder, a partial presentation of the original media demonstration. After both reminder delays, groups that received a video demonstration and a video reminder (video/video) performed significantly better than did the video-reminder-only control group (x/video), but groups that received a picture-book demonstration and a picture-book reminder (book/book) did not perform better than did the picture-book-reminder-only control (x/book). Additionally, if reminders did not veridically match the conditions of encoding (e.g., video demonstration and a book reminder, video/book or vice versa), infants also failed to perform better than controls. Theoretical implications for the understanding of long-term memory processing during early childhood and practical implications for early multimedia usage are discussed.
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REFERENCES. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/mono.12011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Re-enactment of intended acts from a video presentation by 18- and 24-month-old children. Cogn Process 2012; 13:381-6. [PMID: 22872509 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-012-0518-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
We used the Re-enactment of intention paradigm to investigate whether children would re-enact what an adult intended to do in a video presentation as they do when presented with a live demonstration (Meltzoff in Dev Psychol 31(5):838-850, 1995). Unlike the 18-month-old infants studied by Meltzoff (Dev Psychol 31(5):838-850, 1995), the 18- and 24-month-olds in the current study did not frequently imitate unsuccessful goal-directed actions presented in a video model. Children who performed better in the task also tended to share more of their attention with the experimenter during co-viewing of the video. Performance on the Re-enactment of intention task was positively related to categorization score, an independent measure of cognitive functioning.
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Seehagen S, Herbert JS. Selective imitation in 6-month-olds: The role of the social and physical context. Infant Behav Dev 2012; 35:509-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2012.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2011] [Revised: 01/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Abstract
Should babies be watching television and DVDs? This is a reasonable question to ask but a difficult one to answer. This article reviews the theories and related research to examine what is known about infant media use. The review provides evidence both for and against each theory. The importance of infants learning how to watch and learn from screen media presentations is indicated and the new world of media to which babies are exposed is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen A Wartella
- Communication Studies, Northwestern University, 2-148 Frances Searle Building, 2240 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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Hopper LM, Lambeth SP, Schapiro SJ. An evaluation of the efficacy of video displays for use with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Am J Primatol 2012; 74:442-9. [PMID: 22318867 PMCID: PMC3823527 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 11/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Video displays for behavioral research lend themselves particularly well to studies with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), as their vision is comparable to humans', yet there has been no formal test of the efficacy of video displays as a form of social information for chimpanzees. To address this, we compared the learning success of chimpanzees shown video footage of a conspecific compared to chimpanzees shown a live conspecific performing the same novel task. Footage of an unfamiliar chimpanzee operating a bidirectional apparatus was presented to 24 chimpanzees (12 males, 12 females), and their responses were compared to those of a further 12 chimpanzees given the same task but with no form of information. Secondly, we also compared the responses of the chimpanzees in the video display condition to responses of eight chimpanzees from a previously published study of ours, in which chimpanzees observed live models. Chimpanzees shown a video display were more successful than those in the control condition and showed comparable success to those that saw a live model. Regarding fine-grained copying (i.e. the direction that the door was pushed), only chimpanzees that observed a live model showed significant matching to the model's methods with their first response. Yet, when all the responses made by the chimpanzees were considered, comparable levels of matching were shown by chimpanzees in both the live and video conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia M Hopper
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA.
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Mills CM, Danovitch JH, Grant MG, Elashi FB. Little pitchers use their big ears: preschoolers solve problems by listening to others ask questions. Child Dev 2012; 83:568-80. [PMID: 22304406 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01725.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Children ask questions and learn from the responses they receive; however, little is known about how children learn from listening to others ask questions. Five experiments examined preschoolers' (N = 179) ability to solve simple problems using information gathered from listening to question-and-answer exchanges between 2 parties present in the same room. Overall, the ability to efficiently use information gathered from overheard exchanges improved between ages 3 and 5. Critically, however, across ages children solved the majority of problems correctly, suggesting preschoolers are capable of learning from others' questions. Moreover, children learned from others' questions without explicit instruction and when engaged in another activity. Implications for the development of problem-solving skills are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candice M Mills
- The University of Texas at Dallas, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences GR41, Richardson, TX 75080, USA.
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Looking good versus doing good: Which factors take precedence when children learn about new tools? J Exp Child Psychol 2011; 110:575-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Revised: 05/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Simcock G, Garrity K, Barr R. The effect of narrative cues on infants' imitation from television and picture books. Child Dev 2011; 82:1607-19. [PMID: 21883157 PMCID: PMC3170082 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01636.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Infants can imitate a novel action sequence from television and picture books, yet there has been no direct comparison of infants' imitation from the 2 types of media. Varying the narrative cues available during the demonstration and test, the current experiments measured 18- and 24-month-olds' imitation from television and picture books. Infants imitated from both media types when full narrative cues (Experiment 1; N = 76) or empty, meaningless narration (Experiment 2; N = 135) accompanied the demonstrations, but they imitated more from television than books. In Experiment 3 (N = 27), infants imitated from a book based on narration alone, without the presence of pictures. These results are discussed in relation to age-related changes in cognitive flexibility and infants' emerging symbolic understanding.
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Ganea PA, Ma L, Deloache JS. Young children's learning and transfer of biological information from picture books to real animals. Child Dev 2011; 82:1421-33. [PMID: 21679177 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01612.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Preschool children (N = 104) read a book that described and illustrated color camouflage in animals (frogs and lizards). Children were then asked to indicate and explain which of 2 novel animals would be more likely to fall prey to a predatory bird. In Experiment 1, 3- and 4-year-olds were tested with pictures depicting animals in camouflage and noncamouflage settings; in Experiment 2, 4-year-olds were tested with real animals. The results show that by 4 years of age, children can learn new biological facts from a picture book. Of particular importance, transfer from books to real animals was found. These findings point to the importance that early book exposure can play in framing and increasing children's knowledge about the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Ganea
- Institute of Child Study, Human Developmentand Applied Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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O'Doherty K, Troseth GL, Shimpi PM, Goldenberg E, Akhtar N, Saylor MM. Third-party social interaction and word learning from video. Child Dev 2011; 82:902-15. [PMID: 21418054 PMCID: PMC3089674 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01579.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In previous studies, very young children have learned words while "overhearing" a conversation, yet they have had trouble learning words from a person on video. In Study 1, 64 toddlers (mean age=29.8 months) viewed an object-labeling demonstration in 1 of 4 conditions. In 2, the speaker (present or on video) directly addressed the child, and in 2, the speaker addressed another adult who was present or was with her on video. Study 2 involved 2 follow-up conditions with 32 toddlers (mean age=30.4 months). Across the 2 studies, the results indicated that toddlers learned words best when participating in or observing a reciprocal social interaction with a speaker who was present or on video.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine O'Doherty
- Department of Psychology and HumanDevelopment, Vanderbilt University, 230 Appleton Place, Nashville, TN 37203–5721, USA.
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Damm F, Petermann F, Petermann U. Imitationsfähigkeit von Kleinkindern in den ersten beiden Lebensjahren. PSYCHOLOGISCHE RUNDSCHAU 2011. [DOI: 10.1026/0033-3042/a000072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Die Imitation repräsentiert eine wichtige kognitive und sozial-kognitive Fähigkeit in der frühen Kindheit. In den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten konzentrierte sich die Kleinkindforschung hauptsächlich auf die Untersuchung der verzögerten Imitation als nonverbales deklaratives Gedächtnismaß und der Imitation im Zusammenhang mit dem Intentionsverständnis. Ergebnisse von Längsschnittstudien zeigen zudem, dass individuelle Unterschiede in der verzögerten Imitationsleistung mit weiteren kognitiven, aber auch mit sprachlichen und sozialen Fertigkeiten assoziiert sind. Studien, die neue Präsentationsmedien (z.B. Videopräsentationen) nutzen, konnten bisherige Ergebnisse zu zugrunde liegenden kognitiven Prozessen bestätigen. Darüber hinaus erweitern sie unseren Kenntnisstand über die Bedeutung der sozialen Interaktion für das Imitationslernen. Für zukünftige Forschungsarbeiten zu diesem Thema ergibt sich, dass aufgrund der engen Beziehung zwischen dem Imitationsverhalten und anderen Fertigkeiten umfassendere Längsschnittstudien erforderlich sind, die individuelle Merkmale des Kindes, aber auch Merkmale seiner sozialen Umgebung in der Analyse der Imitation stärker berücksichtigen.
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Richert RA, Robb MB, Smith EI. Media as social partners: the social nature of young children's learning from screen media. Child Dev 2011; 82:82-95. [PMID: 21291430 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01542.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Television has become a nearly ubiquitous feature in children's cultural landscape. A review of the research into young children's learning from television indicates that the likelihood that children will learn from screen media is influenced by their developing social relationships with on-screen characters, as much as by their developing perception of the screen and their symbolic understanding and comprehension of information presented on screen. Considering the circumstances in which children under 6 years learn from screen media can inform teachers, parents, and researchers about the important nature of social interaction in early learning and development. The findings reviewed in this article suggest the social nature of learning, even learning from screen media.
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Anderson DR, Hanson KG. From blooming, buzzing confusion to media literacy: The early development of television viewing. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Barr R. Transfer of learning between 2D and 3D sources during infancy: Informing theory and practice. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2010; 30:128-154. [PMID: 20563302 PMCID: PMC2885850 DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2010.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The ability to transfer learning across contexts is an adaptive skill that develops rapidly during early childhood. Learning from television is a specific instance of transfer of learning between a 2-Dimensional (2D) representation and a 3-Dimensional (3D) object. Understanding the conditions under which young children might accomplish this particular kind of transfer is important because by 2 years of age 90% of US children are viewing television on a daily basis. Recent research shows that children can imitate actions presented on television using the corresponding real-world objects, but this same research also shows that children learn less from television than they do from live demonstrations until they are at least 3 years old; termed the video deficit effect. At present, there is no coherent theory to account for the video deficit effect; how learning is disrupted by this change in context is poorly understood. The aims of the present review are (1) to review the conditions under which children transfer learning between 2D images and 3D objects during early childhood, and (2) to integrate developmental theories of memory processing into the transfer of learning from media literature using Hayne's (2004) developmental representational flexibility account. The review will conclude that studies on the transfer of learning between 2D and 3D sources have important theoretical implications for general developmental theories of cognitive development, and in particular the development of a flexible representational system, as well as policy implications for early education regarding the potential use and limitations of media as effective teaching tools during early childhood.
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Courage ML, Setliff AE. When babies watch television: Attention-getting, attention-holding, and the implications for learning from video material. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2010.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Seehagen S, Herbert JS. The role of demonstrator familiarity and language cues on infant imitation from television. Infant Behav Dev 2010; 33:168-75. [PMID: 20137815 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Revised: 10/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Hopper LM. ‘Ghost’ experiments and the dissection of social learning in humans and animals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2010; 85:685-701. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00120.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Hopper LM, Flynn EG, Wood LAN, Whiten A. Observational learning of tool use in children: Investigating cultural spread through diffusion chains and learning mechanisms through ghost displays. J Exp Child Psychol 2010; 106:82-97. [PMID: 20064644 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2009] [Accepted: 12/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In the first of two experiments, we demonstrate the spread of a novel form of tool use across 20 "cultural generations" of child-to-child transmission. An experimentally seeded technique spread with 100% fidelity along twice as many "generations" as has been investigated in recent exploratory "diffusion" experiments of this type. This contrasted with only a single child discovering the technique spontaneously in a comparable group tested individually without any model. This study accordingly documents children's social learning of tool use on a new, population-level scale that characterizes real-world cultural phenomena. In a second experiment, underlying social learning processes were investigated with a focus on the contrast between imitation (defined as copying actions) and emulation (defined as learning from the results of actions only). In two different "ghost" conditions, children were presented with the task used in the first experiment but now operated without sight of an agent performing the task, thereby presenting only the information used in emulation. Children in ghost conditions were less successful than those who had watched a model in action and showed variable matching to what they had seen. These findings suggest the importance of observational learning of complex tool use through imitation rather than only through emulation. Results of the two experiments are compared with those of similar experiments conducted previously with chimpanzees and are discussed in relation to the wider perspective of human culture and the influence of task complexity on social learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia M Hopper
- Language Research Center, Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
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Barr R, Shuck L, Salerno K, Atkinson E, Linebarger DL. Music interferes with learning from television during infancy. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Barr R, Wyss N, Somanader M. The influence of electronic sound effects on learning from televised and live models. J Exp Child Psychol 2009; 103:1-16. [PMID: 19345954 PMCID: PMC2716753 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2007] [Revised: 02/26/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Infants rapidly accrue information via imitation from multiple sources, including television and electronic toys. In two experiments, we examined whether adding sound effects to video or live demonstrations would influence imitation by 6-, 12-, and 18-month-olds. In Experiment 1, we added matching and mismatching sound effects to target actions presented by a televised model. We found that 6-month-olds reproduced the target actions regardless of whether the sound effects were matched or mismatched, whereas 12- and 18-month-olds reproduced the actions only when the sound effects were matched. In Experiment 2, we added matching sound effects to target actions presented by a live model. The addition of sound effects disrupted imitation performance by 6-, 12-, and 18-month-olds. Overall, imitation provides a clear behavioral measure of rapid changes in learning from television and electronic toys during infancy. These findings have practical implications for producers and parents regarding learning in the digital age and theoretical implications regarding the development of integrated action-perception representational systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Barr
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
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