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Vasil N, Srinivasan M, Ellwood-Lowe ME, Delaney S, Gopnik A, Lombrozo T. Structural explanations lead young children and adults to rectify resource inequalities. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 242:105896. [PMID: 38520769 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Decisions about how to divide resources have profound social and practical consequences. Do explanations regarding the source of existing inequalities influence how children and adults allocate new resources? When 3- to 6-year-old children (N = 201) learned that inequalities were caused by structural forces (stable external constraints affecting access to resources) as opposed to internal forces (effort), they rectified inequalities, overriding previously documented tendencies to perpetuate inequality or divide resources equally. Adults (N = 201) were more likely than children to rectify inequality spontaneously; this was further strengthened by a structural explanation but reversed by an effort-based explanation. Allocation behaviors were mirrored in judgments of which allocation choices by others were appropriate. These findings reveal how explanations powerfully guide social reasoning and action from childhood through adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ny Vasil
- California State University, East Bay, Hayward, CA 94542, USA.
| | | | | | - Sierra Delaney
- University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Alison Gopnik
- University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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2
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Rizzo MT, Roberts SO, Rhodes M. The effect of group status on children's hierarchy-reinforcing beliefs. Dev Sci 2023; 26:e13393. [PMID: 37056163 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Members of advantaged groups are more likely than members of disadvantaged groups to think, feel, and behave in ways that reinforce their group's position within the hierarchy. This study examined how children's status within a group-based hierarchy shapes their beliefs about the hierarchy and the groups that comprise it in ways that reinforce the hierarchy. To do this, we randomly assigned children (4-8 years; N = 123; 75 female, 48 male; 21 Asian, 9 Black, 21 Latino/a, 1 Middle-Eastern/North-African, 14 multiracial, 41 White, 16 not-specified) to novel groups that differed in social status (advantaged, disadvantaged, neutral third-party) and assessed their beliefs about the hierarchy. Across five separate assessments, advantaged-group children were more likely to judge the hierarchy to be fair, generalizable, and wrong to challenge and were more likely to hold biased intergroup attitudes and exclude disadvantaged group members. In addition, with age, children in both the advantaged- and disadvantaged-groups became more likely to see membership in their own group as inherited, while at the same time expecting group-relevant behaviors to be determined more by the environment. With age, children also judged the hierarchy to be more unfair and expected the hierarchy to generalize across contexts. These findings provide novel insights into how children's position within hierarchies can contribute to the formation of hierarchy-reinforcing beliefs. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: A total of 123 4-8-year-olds were assigned to advantaged, disadvantaged, and third-party groups within a hierarchy and were assessed on seven hierarchy-reinforcing beliefs about the hierarchy. Advantaged children were more likely to say the hierarchy was fair, generalizable, and wrong to challenge and to hold intergroup biases favoring advantaged group members. With age, advantaged- and disadvantaged-group children held more essentialist beliefs about membership in their own group, but not the behaviors associated with their group. Results suggest that advantaged group status can shape how children perceive and respond to the hierarchies they are embedded within.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Rizzo
- University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Sierksma J. Children perpetuate competence-based inequality when they help peers. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2023; 8:41. [PMID: 37730707 PMCID: PMC10511518 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-023-00192-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Exchanges of help between children are common and often have positive consequences. But not all help is equally beneficial, for example because some help does not provide an opportunity to practice and develop skills. Here I examine whether young children might perpetuate competence-based inequality by providing incompetent peers with less opportunity to practice and improve their skills compared to competent peers. Study 1 (N = 253, 6-9 years) shows that young children understand not all help is equally beneficial: Children think that peers who receive empowerment (hints) vs. non-empowerment (correct answers) help can learn more. Study 2 (N = 80) and 3 (N = 41) then assessed children's (7-9 years) actual helping behavior in a lab-based experiment. Through a cover story, participants were introduced to two unknown, same-age children whom they later overheard were either good or not good at solving puzzles (Study 2) or math (Study 3). Subsequently, participants got to help both of them with a puzzle-quiz (Study 2) or a math-quiz (Study 3) by providing either empowerment or non-empowerment when they asked for help. Across both studies, children were more likely to provide empowerment help to competent peers, and non-empowerment help to incompetent peers. This work suggests that when young children perceive differences in competence (e.g., based on stereotypes), they contribute to maintaining the status quo by providing the most vulnerable students, that would profit the most from improving their skills, less opportunity to do so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jellie Sierksma
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Zhang X, Corbit J, Xiao X, Li Y. The influence of social status on children's merit-based resource allocation: The potential explanation of expectation. Child Dev 2023; 94:1281-1297. [PMID: 37068127 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
How 3- to 11-year-old children integrate recipients' merit and social status when allocating resources was examined in 2021 and 2022. Study 1 (Han Chinese, n = 309, 150 girls) showed that while children prioritized merit, they developed from favoring high-status recipients to favoring low-status recipients. Study 2 (n = 194, 98 girls) and Study 3 (n = 138, 68 girls) revealed that children held stereotypes about the relation between merit and social status which shifted with age from expecting high-status peers to expecting low-status peers to work harder, these expectations corresponded allocation decisions. These findings suggest children shift from perpetuating to rectifying inequity and changing stereotypes about people of different social status may serve an important function in the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuran Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - John Corbit
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Xue Xiao
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yanfang Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
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Ma S, Tsay CJ, Chen EE. Preference for talented naturals over hard workers emerges in childhood and shapes behavior. Child Dev 2022; 94:674-690. [PMID: 36537003 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Both talent and effort are considered essential sources of achievement, but past research suggests a preference for people who appear to achieve through talent. This research examined the potential naturalness preference in 306 Chinese children (Mage : 6.12 years; 164 girls) and 352 adults (Mage : 19.87 years; 182 women) in 2019. In Study 1, participants evaluated a natural or striver protagonist of equal achievement. Children attributed greater competence and warmth to naturals than strivers; adults exhibited this preference only when attributing competence. In Study 2, participants indicated their behavioral preferences between the two protagonists. Children, but not adults, interacted more with naturals than strivers. These findings indicate the naturalness preference emerges early (ds ≥ .27) but declines in strength over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaocong Ma
- Division of Social Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Chia-Jung Tsay
- Department of Management and Human Resources, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,School of Management, University College London, London, UK
| | - Eva E Chen
- Division of Social Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China.,College of Education, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Republic of China
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Chas A, Betancor V, Rodríguez A, Delgado N. Not Humans, but Animals or Machines. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1027/1864-9335/a000481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. The aims of the present research are (1) to provide empirical evidence on animalization and, especially, mechanization in childhood and (2) to determine if outgroup stereotypical characteristics influence the dehumanization strategy chosen by children. In Study 1 (Study 1A: N = 77, Mage = 13.18; Study 1B: N = 140, Mage = 12.28), we investigated whether children associate machine-related words with the outgroup (Japanese) to a greater extent than with the ingroup (Spanish). In Study 2 (Study 2A: N = 118, Mage = 11.72; Study 2B: N = 142, Mage = 11.66), we examined whether the perception of competence (Japanese-high competence vs. Arabs-low competence) determines the dehumanization strategy used by children. The results show that children are capable of animalizing but also mechanizing and that the stereotypical characteristics of outgroups affect the form of dehumanization used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Chas
- Department of Cognitive, Social, and Organizational Psychology, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Verónica Betancor
- Department of Cognitive, Social, and Organizational Psychology, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Armando Rodríguez
- Department of Cognitive, Social, and Organizational Psychology, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Naira Delgado
- Department of Cognitive, Social, and Organizational Psychology, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
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Yang X, Dunham Y. Emerging complexity in children's conceptualization of the wealthy and the poor. Dev Sci 2022; 25:e13225. [PMID: 34981613 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Past work suggests that children have an overly rosy view of rich people that stays consistent across childhood. However, adults do not show explicit pro-rich biases and even hold negative stereotypes against the rich (e.g., thinking that rich people are cold and greedy). When does this developmental shift occur, and when do children develop more complex and differentiated understandings of the wealthy and the poor? The current work documents the developmental trajectory of 4-12-yr-old primarily American middle-class children's conceptualizations of the wealthy and the poor (total N = 164). We find: (1) age-related decreases in pro-rich preferences and stereotypes relative to the poor; (2) domain-sensitive stereotypes across prosociality, talent, and effort; (3) resource-specific behavioral expectations such that with age children increasingly expect the wealthy to contribute more material resources but not more time than the poor; (4) an increasing recognition of the unfairness of the wealth gap between the wealthy and the poor; and (5) a developing understanding of the link between wealth and power. In sum, this work illuminates the emergence of more complex understandings of wealth, poverty, and inequality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yang
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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Yu C, Qian M, Amemiya J, Fu G, Lee K, Heyman GD. Young children form generalized attitudes based on a single encounter with an outgroup member. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13191. [PMID: 34775669 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The goal of the present research was to assess whether children's first interaction with a single outgroup member can significantly impact their general attitudes toward the outgroup as a whole. In two preregistered studies, 5- to 6-year-old Chinese children (total N = 147) encountered a Black adult from another country for the very first time, and they played a game together. General attitudes toward the outgroup were assessed using both implicit and explicit measures. In both studies, the interaction resulted in less negative explicit attitudes toward Black people, but more negative implicit attitudes. The results demonstrate for the first time that one encounter with a single outgroup member can impact children's general attitudes toward that group, and that it can have differential effects on implicit and explicit attitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengfei Yu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Miao Qian
- Department of Psychology, University of Detroit Mercy, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Jamie Amemiya
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Gail D Heyman
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA
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10
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Lima MEO, Leite MDF. Conteúdo dos Estereótipos e Preconceito Racial: Efeitos da Cordialidade e da Competência. PSICOLOGIA: TEORIA E PESQUISA 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/0102.3772e37546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Resumo Utilizando o Modelo do Conteúdo dos Estereótipos (MCE), analisou-se, em dois estudos, as relações das dimensões de cordialidade e competência com as expressões de preconceito racial. No Estudo 1, participaram 169 universitários (M idade=21,7 anos, 47% pardos). Verificou-se a existência de preconceito implícito, a maior atribuição de competência aos brancos que aos negros e a relação positiva entre racismo moderno e atribuição de competência aos brancos. No Estudo 2, participaram 143 universitários (M idade=25,4 anos, 64,9% pardos). Verificou-se que negros descritos como malsucedidos-amáveis receberam maior estereotipia de competência do que brancos malsucedidos-frios. Concluiu-se que: 1) a dimensão da cordialidade não se aplicou aos negros e 2) existe uma relação entre o MCE e a expressão do preconceito racial.
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Constantin AA, Cuadrado I. How do adolescents perceive Chinese and Romanian immigrants? Testing the extended stereotype content model (¿Cómo perciben los adolescentes a los inmigrantes de origen chino y rumano? Una prueba del modelo extendido del contenido de los estereotipos (MCE)). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/02134748.2020.1840231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Parks-Stamm EJ, Henson EN, Martiny SE. Girls' perceptions of their mothers at work and home: Warm does not mean weak. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 39:341-346. [PMID: 33314182 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Upper elementary school girls were surveyed about their mothers' and fathers' warmth, competence, and agency at home and how they imagine their parents at work. Mothers' warmth at home was positively correlated with perceived competence and agency both at home and at work. Differences between daughters' perceptions of their mothers and fathers at work are discussed.
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Martin AE, Slepian ML. The Primacy of Gender: Gendered Cognition Underlies the Big Two Dimensions of Social Cognition. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020; 16:1143-1158. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691620904961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is notable that across distinct, siloed, and disconnected areas of psychology (e.g., developmental, personality, social), there exist two dimensions (the “Big Two”) that capture the ways in which people process, perceive, and navigate their social worlds. Despite their subtle distinctions and nomenclature, each shares the same underlying content; one revolves around independence, goal pursuit, and achievement, and the other revolves around other-focus, social orientation, and desire for connection. Why have these two dimensions emerged across disciplines, domains, and decades? Our answer: gender. We argue that the characteristics of the Big Two (e.g., agency/competence, communion/warmth) are reflections of psychological notions of masculinity and femininity that render gender the basis of the fundamental lens through which one sees the social world. Thus, although past work has identified the Big Two as a model to understand social categories, we argue that gender itself is the social category that explains the nature of the Big Two. We outline support for this theory and suggest implications of a gendered cognition in which gender not only provides functional utility for cognitive processing but simultaneously enforces gender roles and limits men and women’s opportunities. Recognizing that the Big Two reflect masculinity and femininity does not confine people to act in accordance with their gender but rather allows for novel interventions to reduce gender-based inequities.
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Dunlea JP, Heiphetz L. Children's and adults' understanding of punishment and the criminal justice system. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Sierksma J, Shutts K. When Helping Hurts: Children Think Groups That Receive Help Are Less Smart. Child Dev 2020; 91:715-723. [PMID: 31900939 PMCID: PMC7244365 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Helping has many positive consequences for both helpers and recipients. However, in the present research, we considered a possible downside to receiving help: that it signals a deficiency. We investigated whether young children make inferences about intelligence from observing some groups of people receive help and other groups not. In a novel group paradigm, we show that children (4–6 years) think groups that receive help are less smart (n = 44) but not less nice (n = 45). Children also generalized their inferences about relative intelligence to new group members (n = 55; forced‐choice‐method). These results have implications for understanding how children develop stereotypes about intelligence as well as for educational practices that group children according to their ability.
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Constantin AA, Cuadrado I. “We believe, we feel, we act”: Testing the BIAS Map predictions during adolescence. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreea A. Constantin
- Department of Psychology and Centre for the Study of Migrations and Intercultural Relations (CEMyRI) University of Almería Almería Spain
| | - Isabel Cuadrado
- Department of Psychology and Centre for the Study of Migrations and Intercultural Relations (CEMyRI) University of Almería Almería Spain
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Elenbaas L, Killen M. Children's Perceptions of Economic Groups in a Context of Limited Access to Opportunities. Child Dev 2019; 90:1632-1649. [PMID: 29333602 PMCID: PMC11161858 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Children (N = 267, ages 8-14 years, M = 11.61 years, middle to upper-middle income) made predictions regarding groups of same-aged peers from high-wealth and low-wealth backgrounds. The context involved granting access to a special opportunity. From middle childhood to early adolescence children increasingly expected both high- and low-wealth groups to want access to opportunities for their own group. However, children viewed high-wealth groups as motivated in part by selfishness and low-wealth groups as concerned in part with broader economic inequality. Finally, the higher children's family income, the more they expected group-serving tendencies. These findings revealed children's perceptions of exclusive preferences between economic groups, negative stereotypes about high-wealth children, and awareness of some of the constraints faced by low-wealth children.
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Howe LC, Leibowitz KA, Crum AJ. When Your Doctor "Gets It" and "Gets You": The Critical Role of Competence and Warmth in the Patient-Provider Interaction. Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:475. [PMID: 31333518 PMCID: PMC6619399 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Research demonstrates that the placebo effect can influence the effectiveness of medical treatments and accounts for a significant proportion of healing in many conditions. However, providers may differ in the degree to which they consciously or unconsciously leverage the forces that produce placebo effects in clinical practice. Some studies suggest that the manner in which providers interact with patients shapes the magnitude of placebo effects, but this research has yet to distill the specific dimensions of patient-provider interactions that are most likely to influence placebo response and the mechanisms through which aspects of patient-provider interactions impact placebo response. Methods: We offer a simplifying and unifying framework in which interactions that boost placebo response can be dissected into two key dimensions: patients' perceptions of competence, or whether a doctor "gets it" (i.e., displays of efficiency, knowledge, and skill), and patients' perceptions of warmth, or whether a doctor "gets me" (i.e., displays of personal engagement, connection, and care for the patient). Results: First, we discuss how this framework builds on past research in psychology on social perception of competence and warmth and in medical literature on models of effective medical care, patient satisfaction, and patient-provider interactions. Then we consider possible mechanisms through which competence and warmth may affect the placebo response in healthcare. Finally, we share original data from patients and providers highlighting how this framework applies to healthcare. Both patient and provider data illustrate actionable ways providers can demonstrate competence and warmth to patients. Discussion: We conclude with recommendations for how researchers and practitioners alike can more systematically consider the role of provider competence and warmth in patient-provider interactions to deepen our understanding of placebo effects and, ultimately, enable providers to boost placebo effects alongside active medications (i.e., with known medical ingredients) and treatment in clinical care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C. Howe
- Department of Business Administration, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kari A. Leibowitz
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Alia J. Crum
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
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Heiphetz L, Strohminger N, Gelman SA, Young LL. Who am I? The role of moral beliefs in children's and adults' understanding of identity. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Ahl RE, Dunham Y. "Wealth Makes Many Friends": Children Expect More Giving From Resource-Rich Than Resource-Poor Individuals. Child Dev 2017; 90:524-543. [PMID: 28832977 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Young children show social preferences for resource-rich individuals, although few studies have explored the causes underlying such preferences. We evaluate the viability of one candidate cause: Children believe that resource wealth relates to behavior, such that they expect the resource rich to be more likely to materially benefit others (including themselves) than the resource poor. In Studies 1 and 2 (ages 4-10), American children from predominantly middle-income families (n = 94) and Indian children from lower income families (n = 30) predicted that the resource rich would be likelier to share with others than the resource poor. In Study 3, American children (n = 66) made similar predictions in an incentivized decision-making task. The possibility that children's expectations regarding giving contribute to prowealth preferences is discussed.
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Identification of Sustainability Key Factors Based on Capturing Dominant Feedbacks of Behavioural Stereotypes in Socio-Economic Systems. SYSTEMS 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/systems5020042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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