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Nguyen SP, McDermott C. Holding multiple category representations: The role of age, theory of mind, and rule switching in children's developing cross-classification abilities. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 237:105716. [PMID: 37603980 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Cross-classification, the ability to categorize multifaceted entities in many ways, is a remarkable cognitive milestone for children. Past work has focused primarily on documenting the timeline for when children reach cross-classification competence. However, it is not well understood what cognitive factors underpin children's improvements. The current study aimed to examine the contributions of age, theory of mind, and rule switching to children's cross-classification development. We tested 3- to 5-year-old children (N = 75) using a cross-classification task, the Theory of Mind Task Battery, and the Three-Dimensional Change Card Sort test. The results revealed that age and theory of mind predict children's cross-classification over and above the effects of rule switching. The results also revealed that advanced-level theory of mind reasoning is a particularly strong predictor of cross-classification development. These findings increase understanding of cross-classification within children's broader cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone P Nguyen
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA.
| | - Catherine McDermott
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA
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Podjarny G, Kamawar D, Andrews K. Two birds in the hand: Concurrent and switching cognitive flexibility in preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 220:105418. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Pomper R, Kaushanskaya M, Saffran J. Change is hard: Individual differences in children's lexical processing and executive functions after a shift in dimensions. LANGUAGE LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 2021; 18:229-247. [PMID: 35600505 PMCID: PMC9122267 DOI: 10.1080/15475441.2021.1947289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Language comprehension involves cognitive abilities that are specific to language as well as cognitive abilities that are more general and involved in a wide range of behaviors. One set of domain-general abilities that support language comprehension are executive functions (EFs), also known as cognitive control. A diverse body of research has demonstrated that EFs support language comprehension when there is conflict between competing, incompatible interpretations of temporarily ambiguous words or phrases. By engaging EFs, children and adults are able to select or bias their attention towards the correct interpretation. However, the degree to which language processing engages EFs in the absence of ambiguity is poorly understood. In the current experiment, we tested whether EFs may be engaged when comprehending speech that does not elicit conflicting interpretations. Different components of EFs were measured using several behavioral tasks and language comprehension was measured using an eye-tracking procedure. Five-year-old children (n=56) saw pictures of familiar objects and heard sentences identifying the objects using either their names or colors. After a series of objects were identified using one dimension, children were significantly less accurate in fixating target objects that were identified using a second dimension. Further results reveal that this decrease in accuracy does not occur because children struggle to shift between dimensions, but rather because they are unable to predict which dimension will be used. These effects of predictability are related to individual differences in children's EFs. Taken together, these findings suggest that EFs may be more broadly involved when children comprehend language, even in instances that do not require conflict resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ron Pomper
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 West Johnson Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Margarita Kaushanskaya
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Goodnight Hall, 1975 Willow Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jenny Saffran
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 West Johnson Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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Morra S, Panesi S, Traverso L, Usai MC. Which tasks measure what? Reflections on executive function development and a commentary on Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017). J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 167:246-258. [PMID: 29197781 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This article provides a selective review of the literature on executive function development and related topics, focusing on the conceptual and terminological confusions that might hinder communication among researchers in the field. The distinctions between working memory and updating, and between shifting and flexibility, are discussed. Methodological problems, which have implications regarding whether a certain task can be considered a measure of a psychological construct, are also discussed. Research on preschoolers is examined with particular attention because it is a rapidly growing but controversial field that seems in particular need of greater conceptual clarity. As a specific touchstone case, we discuss whether the Multidimensional Card Selection Task (MCST) created by Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017) should better be considered a measure of concurrent cognitive flexibility or working memory capacity. It is argued that connecting tasks to theoretical constructs is not warranted unless based on rigorous empirical testing of well-formulated models.
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Podjarny G, Kamawar D, Andrews K. Measuring on the go: Response to Morra, Panesi, Traverso, and Usai. J Exp Child Psychol 2018. [PMID: 29530325 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Morra, Panesi, Traverso, and Usai's (Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 2017, Vol. 167, pp. 246-258) effort to clarify theoretical models and nomenclature confusion surrounding young children's executive functions development is laudable and important. In this article, we address some of the points these authors raised regarding our previous article (Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 2017, Vol. 159, pp. 199-218). Although we agree that the Multidimensional Card Selection Task makes working memory demands, it goes beyond working memory to measure concurrent cognitive flexibility in preschoolers. Using this task will allow researchers to fine-tune our models of cognitive flexibility and executive functions development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gal Podjarny
- Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - Deepthi Kamawar
- Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada; Institute of Cognitive Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Katherine Andrews
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada
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Göllner LM, Ballhausen N, Kliegel M, Forstmeier S. Delay of Gratification, Delay Discounting and their Associations with Age, Episodic Future Thinking, and Future Time Perspective. Front Psychol 2018; 8:2304. [PMID: 29422875 PMCID: PMC5788968 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The delay of gratification (DoG) in children is widely investigated with an experimental procedure originally called the “marshmallow test,” whereas the studies on self-regulation (SR) in adolescents and adults usually use self-report questionnaires. Delay discounting (DD) measures simplify the DoG procedure and focus on monetary rewards. The aim of this study was to investigate age differences in DoG and DD from childhood to old age using a test that is suitable for both children and adults. Furthermore, investigations were conducted on the association between DoG/DD and two future orientation constructs [future time perspective (FTP) and episodic future thinking (EFT)] as well as age differences in these constructs. Participants from five age groups (9–14, 18–25, 35–55, 65–80, 80+) participated in the study (N = 96). While we found no age difference for DoG, DD was the lowest [i.e., self-control (SC) was the highest] in young/middle adults; however, it was the highest (i.e., SC was the lowest) in children and old/oldest adults. Furthermore, we found significant age differences for DD and FTP. As predicted, there were strong correlations between DoG and FTP and between DD and FTP, but not between DoG/DD and EFT. These results indicate that age differences in SR vary across the measures used. Individuals who generally think and act in a future-oriented manner have a stronger ability to delay gratification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars M Göllner
- Department of Education Studies and Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
| | - Nicola Ballhausen
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Center of the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Swiss National Center of Competences in Research LIVES-Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Center of the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.,Swiss National Center of Competences in Research LIVES-Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Simon Forstmeier
- Department of Education Studies and Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
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