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Wermelinger S, Moersdorf L, Daum MM. Automatic imitation in school-aged children. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 238:105797. [PMID: 37922702 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Children imitate others for different reasons: To learn from others and to reach social goals such as affiliation or prosociality. So far, imitative acts have been measured using diverging methods in children and adults. Here, we investigated whether school-aged children's imitation can be measured via their automatic imitation with a classical imitation-inhibition task (Brass et al., 2000) as has been used in adults. To this end, we measured automatic imitation in N=94 7-8-year-olds and N=10 adults. The results were similar in children and adults: Observing actions that are incongruent with participants' actions interferes with their responses resulting in increased reaction times and error rates. This shows that assessing automatic imitation via the imitation-inhibition task is feasible in children, and creates the basis for future studies to compare the behaviour of different age groups with the same imitation task.
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2
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Ottoboni G, Toraldo A, Proietti R, Cangelosi A, Tessari A. Paradoxical decrease of imitation performance with age in children. Br J Psychol 2023. [PMID: 36942850 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Imitation development was studied in a cross-sectional design involving 174 primary-school children (aged 6-10), focusing on the effect of actions' complexity and error analysis to infer the underlying cognitive processes. Participants had to imitate the model's actions as if they were in front of a mirror ('specularly'). Complexity varied across three levels: movements of a single limb; arm and leg of the same body side; or arm and leg of opposite body sides. While the overall error rate decreased with age, this was not true of all error categories. The rate of 'side' errors (using a limb of the wrong body side) paradoxically increased with age (from 9 years). However, with increasing age, the error rate also became less sensitive to the complexity of the action. This pattern is consistent with the hypothesis that older children have the working memory (WM) resources and the body knowledge necessary to imitate 'anatomically', which leads to additional side errors. Younger children might be paradoxically free from such interference because their WM and/or body knowledge are insufficient for anatomical imitation. Yet, their limited WM resources would prevent them from successfully managing the conflict between spatial codes involved in complex actions (e.g. moving the left arm and the right leg). We also found evidence that action side and content might be stored in separate short-term memory (STM) systems: increasing the number of sides to be encoded only affected side retrieval, but not content retrieval; symmetrically, increasing the content (number of movements) of the action only affected content retrieval, but not side retrieval. In conclusion, results suggest that anatomical imitation might interfere with specular imitation at age 9 and that STM storages for side and content of actions are separate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Ottoboni
- Department of Psychology 'Renzo Canestrari', University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessio Toraldo
- Department of Brain and Behavioural Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- Milan Centre for Neuroscience (NeuroMI), Milan, Italy
| | - Riccardo Proietti
- Department of Psychology 'Renzo Canestrari', University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Angelo Cangelosi
- Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Alessia Tessari
- Department of Psychology 'Renzo Canestrari', University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Alma Mater Research Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, Bologna, Italy
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3
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Bazhydai M, Ke H, Thomas H, Wong MKY, Westermann G. Investigating the effect of synchronized movement on toddlers' word learning. Front Psychol 2022; 13:1008404. [PMID: 36506988 PMCID: PMC9731293 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1008404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of interpersonal behavioral synchrony on children's behavior is an emerging field rich with research potential. While studies demonstrate its effect on affiliative and prosocial outcomes, the role of synchronized movement on children's specific learning outcomes has not yet been investigated experimentally. One possibility is that synchrony, as a coordinated social activity, encourages perceived social bonds, leading to heightened attention, and better information retention. Equally likely is that physiological, rather than social learning, mechanisms mediate the effect, given the previously demonstrated role of autonomic arousal in attentional fluctuations, cognitive engagement, problem solving, exploration, and curiosity. The present study investigated the behavioral and physiological effects of synchrony conceptualized as induced, interpersonal, behavioral, movement-based interaction, on word learning in 2.5-year-old children. In a laboratory experiment, toddlers engaged in either a synchronous or an asynchronous movement-based interaction with an adult experimenter while listening to an upbeat children's song. After the (a)synchronous movement episode, the same experimenter engaged children in a word learning task. During the (a)synchrony and learning phases, children's physiological arousal was continuously recorded, resulting in heart rate and skin conductance response measures. Following a caregiver-child free play break, children were tested on their novel word retention. The results indicated that children learned novel labels at equal rates during the learning phase in both conditions, and their retention at test did not differ between conditions: although above chance retention of novel labels was found only following the synchronous, but not the asynchronous episode, the cross-episode comparisons did not reach statistical significance. Physiological arousal indices following the (a)synchrony episode did not differ between conditions and did not predict better word learning, although skin conductance response was higher during the learning than the movement episode. This study contributes to our understanding of the underlying cognitive and physiological mechanisms of interpersonal behavioral synchrony in the knowledge acquisition domain and paves the way to future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Bazhydai
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom,*Correspondence: Marina Bazhydai,
| | - Han Ke
- Psychology School of Social Science, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hannah Thomas
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm K. Y. Wong
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Gert Westermann
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
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4
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MacGowan TL, Mirabelli J, Obhi SS, Schmidt LA. Observed shyness leads to more automatic imitation in early childhood. Dev Psychobiol 2022; 64:e22272. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.22272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taigan L. MacGowan
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - James Mirabelli
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Sukhvinder S. Obhi
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Louis A. Schmidt
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Behaviour McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
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Formaux A, O'Sullivan E, Fagot J, Claidière N. Understanding Imitation in Papio papio: The Role of Experience and the Presence of a Conspecific Demonstrator. Cogn Sci 2022; 46:e13117. [PMID: 35297093 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
What factors affect imitation performance? Varying theories of imitation stress the role of experience, but few studies have explicitly tested its role in imitative learning in non-human primates. We tested several predictions regarding the role of experience, conspecific presence, and action compatibility using a stimulus-response compatibility protocol. Nineteen baboons separated into two experimental groups learned to respond by targeting on a touch screen the same stimulus as their neighbor (compatible) or the opposite stimulus (incompatible). They first performed the task with a conspecific demonstrator (social phase) and then a computer demonstrator (ghost phase). After reaching a predetermined success threshold, they were then tested in an opposite compatibility condition (i.e., reversal learning conditions). Seven baboons performed at least two reversals during the social phase, and we found no significant difference between the compatible and incompatible conditions, although we noticed slightly faster response times (RTs) in the compatible condition that disappeared after the first reversal. During the ghost phase, monkeys showed difficulties in learning the incompatible condition, and the compatible condition RTs tended to be slower than during the social phase. Together, these results suggest that (a) there is no strong movement compatibility effect in our task and that (b) the presence of a demonstrator plays a role in eliciting correct responses but is not essential as has been previously shown in human studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Formaux
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), CNRS.,Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS
| | - Eoin O'Sullivan
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, The University of St. Andrews
| | - Joël Fagot
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), CNRS.,Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS
| | - Nicolas Claidière
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), CNRS.,Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS
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6
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Quadrelli E, Bartoli B, Bolognini N, Cavanna AE, Zibordi F, Nardocci N, Turati C, Termine C. Automatic imitation in youngsters with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: A behavioral study. Child Neuropsychol 2021; 27:782-798. [PMID: 33641606 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2021.1892050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
It is widely known that humans have a tendency to imitate each other and that appropriate modulation of automatic imitative behaviors has a crucial function in social interactions. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) is a childhood-onset neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by motor and phonic tics. Apart from tics, patients with GTS are often reported to show an abnormal tendency to automatically imitate others' behaviors (i.e., echophenomena), which may be related to a failure in top-down inhibition of imitative response tendencies. The aim of the current study is to explore the top-down inhibitory mechanisms on automatic imitative behaviors in youngsters with GTS. Error rates and reaction times from 32 participants with GTS and 32 controls were collected in response to an automatic imitation task assessing the influence of observed movements displayed in the first-person perspective on congruent and incongruent motor responses. Results showed that participants with GTS had higher error rates than controls, and their responses were faster than those of controls in incompatible stimuli. Our findings provide novel evidence of a key difference between youngsters with GTS and typically developing participants in the ability to effectively control the production of own motor responses to sensory inputs deriving from observed actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Quadrelli
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,NeuroMI, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - B Bartoli
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - N Bolognini
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,NeuroMI, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - A E Cavanna
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Birmingham and Solihull Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust and University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.,School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK.,Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - F Zibordi
- Department of Pediatric Neuroscience, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - N Nardocci
- Department of Pediatric Neuroscience, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - C Turati
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,NeuroMI, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - C Termine
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
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Farmer H, Mahmood R, Gregory SEA, Tishina P, Hamilton AFDC. Dynamic emotional expressions do not modulate responses to gestures. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 212:103226. [PMID: 33310344 PMCID: PMC7755647 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The tendency to imitate the actions of others appears to be a fundamental aspect of human social interaction. Emotional expressions are a particularly salient form of social stimuli (Vuilleumier & Schwartz, 2001) but their relationship to imitative behaviour is currently unclear. In this paper we report the results of five studies which investigated the effect of a target's dynamic emotional stimuli on participants' tendency to respond compatibly to the target's actions. Experiment one examined the effect of dynamic emotional expressions on the automatic imitation of opening and closing hand movements. Experiment two used the same basic paradigm but added gaze direction as an additional factor. Experiment three investigated the effect of dynamic emotional expressions on compatibility responses to handshakes. Experiment four investigated whether dynamic emotional expressions modulated response to valenced social gestures. Finally, experiment five compared the effects of dynamic and static emotional expressions on participants' automatic imitation of finger lifting. Across all five studies we reliably elicited a compatibility effect however, none of the studies found a significant modulating effect of emotional expression. This null effect was also supported by a random effects meta-analysis and a series of Bayesian t-tests. Nevertheless, these results must be caveated by the fact that our studies had limited power to detect effect sizes below d = 0.4. We conclude by situating our findings within the literature, suggesting that the effect of emotional expressions on automatic imitation is, at best, minimal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry Farmer
- School of Human Sciences, University of Greenwich, United Kingdom; Institute of Lifecourse Development, University of Greenwich, United Kingdom; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, United Kingdom.
| | - Raqeeb Mahmood
- Department of Psychology, University of Bath, United Kingdom
| | | | - Polina Tishina
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Imitation is a deeply social process. Here, I review evidence that children use imitation as a means by which to affiliate with others. For example, children imitate the actions of others more closely when they seek a positive social relationship with them and respond positively to being imitated. Furthermore, children infer something of the relationships between third parties by observing their imitative exchanges. Understanding the social nature of imitation requires exploring the nature of the social relationships between children and the individuals they imitate. Thus, in addition to discussing children's own goals in imitative situations, I review the social pressures children experience to imitate in particular ways, learning to conform to the conventions and rituals of their group. In the latter part of this article, I discuss the extent to which this perspective on imitation can help us to understand broader topics within social development, including the origins of human cultural differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet Over
- Department of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
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9
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Rauchbauer B, Grosbras MH. Developmental trajectory of interpersonal motor alignment: Positive social effects and link to social cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:411-425. [PMID: 32783968 PMCID: PMC7415214 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Interpersonal motor alignment (IMA) has positive effects on healthy social life. IMA - mimicry, synchrony, automatic imitation - is studied throughout development. It relies on motor resonance brain mechanisms identified throughout development. It is modulated by contextual and personal factors. IMA is underinvestigated in adolescence, yet it may aid to enhance resilience.
Interpersonal motor alignment is a ubiquitous behavior in daily social life. It is a building block for higher social cognition, including empathy and mentalizing and promotes positive social effects. It can be observed as mimicry, synchrony and automatic imitation, to name a few. These phenomena rely on motor resonance processes, i.e., a direct link between the perception of an action and its execution. While a considerable literature debates its underlying mechanisms and measurement methods, the question of how motor alignment comes about and changes in ontogeny all the way until adulthood, is rarely discussed specifically. In this review we will focus on the link between interpersonal motor alignment, positive social effects and social cognition in infants, children, and adolescents, demonstrating that this link is present early on in development. Yet, in reviewing the existing literature pertaining to social psychology and developmental social cognitive neuroscience, we identify a knowledge gap regarding the healthy developmental changes in interpersonal motor alignment especially in adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Rauchbauer
- Laboratoire de Neuroscience Cognitives, UMR 7291, Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, 3 Place Victor-Hugo, 13331 Marseille Cedex 3, France; Laboratoire Parole et Langage, Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, 5 Avenue Pasteur, 13100 Aix-en-Provence, France; Institut de Neuroscience de la Timone, Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, Faculté de Médecine, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France.
| | - Marie-Hélène Grosbras
- Laboratoire de Neuroscience Cognitives, UMR 7291, Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, 3 Place Victor-Hugo, 13331 Marseille Cedex 3, France
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10
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Rychlowska M, Vanderwert R. The Pacified Face: Early Embodiment Processes and the Use of Dummies. Front Psychol 2020; 11:387. [PMID: 32231618 PMCID: PMC7082417 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Few things affect us as much as facial expressions, as they inform us about others' feelings and intentions, thereby influencing our own emotions and behaviors. A substantial body of literature links the critical abilities of recognizing and understanding emotion displays with facial mimicry, a sensorimotor process involving rapid imitation of perceived expressions. For example, blocking or altering facial mimicry in adults leads to disruptions in judgments in emotion recognition or emotional language processing. The present review focuses on pacifier use in infancy, a common practice that has the potential to interfere with infants' facial movements in ways identical to laboratory paradigms designed to block facial mimicry. Despite this similarity and the widespread use of infant soothers, little is known about their long-term effects. Here we review studies exploring the psychological correlates and implications of pacifier use. In particular, we discuss how soothers may interfere with the development of social skills in infants and present evidence linking pacifier use with disrupted adults' mimicry of facial expressions displayed by infants. Other preliminary findings reveal negative correlations between the use of soothers and children's spontaneous facial mimicry as well as emotional competence of young adults. Such studies, although correlational, suggest that this widespread parenting practice may affect the development of social skills by influencing emotional coordination. We discuss the implications of these findings and propose avenues for future research that can provide insights into the role of embodied processes in the development of emotional competence and adult functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ross Vanderwert
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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11
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Scott MW, Emerson JR, Dixon J, Tayler MA, Eaves DL. Motor imagery during action observation enhances automatic imitation in children with and without developmental coordination disorder. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 183:242-260. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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12
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de Klerk CCJM, Lamy‐Yang I, Southgate V. The role of sensorimotor experience in the development of mimicry in infancy. Dev Sci 2019; 22:e12771. [PMID: 30415485 PMCID: PMC6767077 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
During social interactions we often have an automatic and unconscious tendency to copy or 'mimic' others' actions. The dominant view on the neural basis of mimicry appeals to an automatic coupling between perception and action. It has been suggested that this coupling is formed through associative learning during correlated sensorimotor experience. Although studies with adult participants have provided support for this hypothesis, little is known about the role of sensorimotor experience in supporting the development of perceptual-motor couplings, and consequently mimicry behaviour, in infancy. Here we investigated whether the extent to which an observed action elicits mimicry depends on the opportunity an infant has had to develop perceptual-motor couplings for this action through correlated sensorimotor experience. We found that mothers' tendency to imitate their 4-month-olds' facial expressions during a parent-child interaction session was related to infants' facial mimicry as measured by electromyography. Maternal facial imitation was not related to infants' mimicry of hand actions, and instead we found preliminary evidence that infants' tendency to look at their own hands may be related to their tendency to mimic hand actions. These results are consistent with the idea that mimicry is supported by perceptual-motor couplings that are formed through correlated sensorimotor experience obtained by observing one's own actions and imitative social partners.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Iona Lamy‐Yang
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive DevelopmentBirkbeck CollegeUniversity of LondonLondonUK
- School of PsychologyCardiff UniversityWalesUK
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Vivanti G, Dissanayake C, Fanning PAJ, Hocking DR. Reduced Motor Interference in Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Williams Syndrome. Dev Neuropsychol 2018; 43:751-763. [PMID: 30321065 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2018.1531289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Motor interference occurs when action execution is hindered by the observation of an incongruent action. The present study used a novel eye-tracking paradigm to test the motor interference effect in 22 preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), 14 preschoolers with Williams syndrome (WS), and 18 typically developing (TD) peers. In TD children, performance of a pre-determined action was slower after the observation of an incongruent motor action and faster following observation of a congruent motor action, indicating a motor interference effect. In both the ASD and WS groups, performance was unaffected by the congruent versus incongruent nature of the observed motor action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Vivanti
- a A.J. Drexel Autism Institute , Drexel University , Philadelphia , PA , USA.,b Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology and Public Health , La Trobe University , Melbourne , VIC , Australia
| | - Cheryl Dissanayake
- b Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology and Public Health , La Trobe University , Melbourne , VIC , Australia
| | - Peter A J Fanning
- b Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology and Public Health , La Trobe University , Melbourne , VIC , Australia
| | - Darren R Hocking
- c Developmental Neuromotor & Cognition Lab, School of Psychology and Public Health , La Trobe University , Melbourne , VIC , Australia
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- Maia Braden
- University of Wisconsin Voice and Swallow Clinics
Madison, WI
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