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Zhao L, Sun W, Lee K. Young children with higher verbal intelligence are less likely to cheat. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 244:105933. [PMID: 38657522 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Cheating is a pervasive unethical behavior. Existing research involving young children has mainly focused on contextual factors affecting cheating behavior, whereas cognitive factors have been relatively understudied. This study investigated the unique role of verbal and performance intelligence on young children's cheating behavior (N = 50; mean age = 5.73 years; 25 boys). Bootstrapping hierarchical logistic regression showed that children's Verbal IQ scores were significantly and negatively correlated with their cheating behavior above and beyond the contributions of age, gender, and Performance IQ scores. Children with higher Verbal IQ scores were less inclined to cheat. However, neither children's Performance IQ nor their Total IQ scores had a significant and unique correlation with cheating. These findings suggest that intelligence plays a significant role in children's cheating but that this role is limited to verbal intelligence only. In addition, this study highlights the need for researchers to go beyond the contextual factors to study the early development of cheating behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhao
- Zhejiang Philosophy and Social Science Laboratory for Research in Early Development and Childcare, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, People's Republic of China; Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wenjin Sun
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, People's Republic of China; Dr. Erick Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5R 2X2, Canada
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Erick Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5R 2X2, Canada
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Williams S, Patel K, Baker M, Campbell S, Ranellucci J, Talwar V. Elementary school-aged children's perceptions of academic dishonesty: Definitions and moral evaluations of cheating behaviors in school. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 242:105893. [PMID: 38479320 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
A total of 76 children (Mage = 9 years 5 months, SD = 2.22 years) participated in a structured interview about their experiences with and knowledge of academic dishonesty. Overall, 27% of the sample reported having cheated in school. Most of these children were 10 to 13 years old, and the most prevalent form of cheating behavior reported was using forbidden materials during a test. Children's age group was a significant positive predictor of their reported cheating history; however, no significant difference was found between children's gender and engagement with cheating. Children's moral evaluations of cheating did not predict their reported cheating history, nor did children's parents' cheating history. Vignette type (cheating vs. non-cheating), age group, and the interaction between vignette type and age group were significant predictors of children's ability to accurately identify behaviors that constitute cheating. Children rated cheating behaviors as significantly less moral than non-cheating behaviors. Overall, the current results provide insight into what forms of cheating behavior children engage in at the elementary school-age level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanna Williams
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada
| | - Krupali Patel
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada
| | - Matthew Baker
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada
| | - Sarah Campbell
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada.
| | - John Ranellucci
- Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Victoria Talwar
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada
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Waltzer T, Cox RL, Moser CF, Heyman GD. Don't be a rat: An investigation of the taboo against reporting other students for cheating. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 242:105894. [PMID: 38493524 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
This research examines barriers to reporting academic dishonesty in early adulthood (Study 1; N = 92) and adolescence (Study 2; N = 137). Participants were asked to describe a recent time they observed a peer cheating and to reflect on their decision about whether to report the cheating. They also responded to hypothetical scenarios about observing typical cheating actions, and the presence of social motives (e.g., whether people who report tend to gain reputations for being snitches) was manipulated in each scenario. Even though participants judged reporting to be the morally right thing to do, doing so was rare and approval for it was low, especially in adolescence. Participants also tended to say they would rather be friends with people who do not report cheaters than with those who do. Participants reasoned about a variety of social concerns to support their judgments about reporting (e.g., concern about their relationship with the cheater, concerns for others' welfare), and the manipulated social motives in the hypothetical scenarios significantly influenced judgments about reporting. These findings inform our understanding of the social dynamics that contribute to decisions about policing academic honesty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Waltzer
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Riley L Cox
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Carina F Moser
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Gail D Heyman
- University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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Chen GZ, Zhao FF, Li HM, Wu YW, Yan WJ. Beyond monetary value: how reward type drives cheating in a gender-judgment task. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1290793. [PMID: 38836237 PMCID: PMC11149652 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1290793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Investigating the effects of monetary incentives on dishonest behavior provides valuable insights into human integrity and ethical decision-making processes. This study is conducted through the lens of self-concept maintenance theory. Aim The aim of this study is to examine the influence of different types of rewards (score-based vs. monetary) and their magnitude on dishonest behavior within a gender judgment task. Method Using a quantitative experimental design, this study involved 116 participants who were randomly assigned to conditions that differed in reward type (score or money) and magnitude (10 yuan vs. 50 yuan). Dishonest behavior was assessed using a gender judgment task with mechanisms to simulate conditions conducive to planned cheating. Results Results revealed significant differences in dishonesty rates between score and money conditions, with a higher proportion of dishonest participants observed in the score condition compared to the money condition. The timing of initial cheating was earlier in the score condition compared to the money condition. No significant differences were found in the proportion of dishonest participants, the cheating rate, or the timing of initial cheating across reward levels within either condition. The rate of cheating increased over time, suggesting a temporal dynamic in unethical decision making. Conclusion The study demonstrates that the nature of rewards significantly influences the likelihood of dishonest behavior, with intangible score-based rewards facilitating rationalizations for dishonesty more readily than tangible financial incentives. These findings enrich the understanding of moral psychology by highlighting the complex interplay between reward types, ethical rationalization, and the dynamics of dishonest behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guan-Zhao Chen
- Wenzhou Seventh People's Hospital, Wenzhou, China
- School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Fei-Fei Zhao
- Wenzhou Seventh People's Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Hao-Ming Li
- Wenzhou Seventh People's Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yu-Wei Wu
- Student Affairs Division, Wenzhou Business College, Wenzhou, China
| | - Wen-Jing Yan
- School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Centre for Mental Illness, Affiliated Kangning Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
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Kanngiesser P, Sunderarajan J, Woike JK. Cheating and the effect of promises in Indian and German children. Child Dev 2024; 95:16-23. [PMID: 37307385 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cheating is harmful to others and society at large. Promises have been shown to increase honesty in children, but their effectiveness has not been compared between different cultural contexts. In a study (2019) with 7- to 12-year-olds (N = 406, 48% female, middle-class), voluntary promises reduced cheating in Indian, but not in German children. Children in both contexts cheated, but cheating rates were lower in Germany than in India. In both contexts, cheating decreased with age in the (no-promise) control condition and was unaffected by age in the promise condition. These findings suggest that there may exist a threshold beyond which cheating cannot be further reduced by promises. This opens new research avenues on how children navigate honesty and promise norms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Kanngiesser
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jahnavi Sunderarajan
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Social Sciences, Flame University, Pune, India
| | - Jan K Woike
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
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Default settings affect children's decisions about whether to be honest. Cognition 2023; 235:105390. [PMID: 36764049 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Behavioral economics research has revealed that our decision-making can be biased by default settings. That is, all other things being equal, adults tend to choose default options even when the effort involved in choosing other options is minimal. Extensive evidence shows that default settings can systematically influence adult decisions in a wide variety of domains (e.g., pension choices, organ donation), but little is known about their developmental origin. Of interest in the present research is whether default settings can influence young children's decisions about whether to be honest. We investigated this question in two studies of 5- and 6-year-old Chinese children (total N = 120; 60 girls; Mage = 5.81, SDage = 0.14). Each study used a specially designed device that allowed children to play a guessing game in either a Cheating Default condition in which they would cheat by doing nothing or in an Honesty Default condition in which they would be honest by doing nothing. In each condition, they had the option of taking a trivially easy action to override the default (pushing a button in Study 1 or moving a screen in Study 2). In both studies, children decided to cheat significantly more often in the Cheating Default condition than in the Honesty Default condition. Additionally, overall cheating rates were significantly higher in Study 2 than in Study 1 (55% vs. 25%), which suggests that even though the default setting effect generalized across different actions, the specific action in question can also affect the cheating rate. Taken together, these results indicate that default setting effects that have been observed in adults have origins in childhood, and they point toward new ways to use nudges to promote positive social development and moral decision-making.
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Zhao L, Peng J, Dong LD, Li Y, Mao H, Compton BJ, Ye J, Li G, Heyman GD, Lee K. Effects of test difficulty messaging on academic cheating among middle school children. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 220:105417. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Reyes-Jaquez B, Koenig MA. Greasing (small) palms: Early rejection of bribery. Child Dev 2022; 93:e531-e546. [PMID: 35674011 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We tested when U.S. children reject bribery, and whether their rejections vary by public versus private setting. Six- to 10-year-olds (224 children, 118 boys, 106 girls, majority-White) participated across four experiments, in which participants indicated whether a contest judge should accept a contestant's financial gift. Children conveyed their preferences while in public or in private (in the presence or absence of an adult experimenter). Children's rejections of bribes were found to increase with age. Notably, younger children's acceptance rate was higher when the experimenter was present than in their absence; in contrast, older children showed comparable rejection rates across settings. Limitations in children's early reasoning about bribery, including the reputational and moral implications of accepting bribes in public, are discussed.
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Thorn J, May KE, Marble KE, Boseovski JJ, Scofield J. Judging the recipients of social actions. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jessy Thorn
- 209 Child Development Research Center University of Alabama Tuscaloosa AL USA
| | - Kaitlyn E. May
- 209 Child Development Research Center University of Alabama Tuscaloosa AL USA
| | | | | | - Jason Scofield
- 209 Child Development Research Center University of Alabama Tuscaloosa AL USA
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