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Surdo S, Barillaro G. Voltage- and Metal-assisted Chemical Etching of Micro and Nano Structures in Silicon: A Comprehensive Review. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2400499. [PMID: 38644330 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202400499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Sculpting silicon at the micro and nano scales has been game-changing to mold bulk silicon properties and expand, in turn, applications of silicon beyond electronics, namely, in photonics, sensing, medicine, and mechanics, to cite a few. Voltage- and metal-assisted chemical etching (ECE and MaCE, respectively) of silicon in acidic electrolytes have emerged over other micro and nanostructuring technologies thanks to their unique etching features. ECE and MaCE have enabled the fabrication of novel structures and devices not achievable otherwise, complementing those feasible with the deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) technology, the gold standard in silicon machining. Here, a comprehensive review of ECE and MaCE for silicon micro and nano machining is provided. The chemistry and physics ruling the dissolution of silicon are dissected and similarities and differences between ECE and MaCE are discussed showing that they are the two sides of the same coin. The processes governing the anisotropic etching of designed silicon micro and nanostructures are analyzed, and the modulation of etching profile over depth is discussed. The preparation of micro- and nanostructures with tailored optical, mechanical, and thermo(electrical) properties is then addressed, and their applications in photonics, (bio)sensing, (nano)medicine, and micromechanical systems are surveyed. Eventually, ECE and MaCE are benchmarked against DRIE, and future perspectives are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Surdo
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'Informazione, Università di Pisa, via G. Caruso 16, Pisa, 56122, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Barillaro
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'Informazione, Università di Pisa, via G. Caruso 16, Pisa, 56122, Italy
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Pinto MR, Costa GF, Machado EG, Nagao R. Self‐Organization in Electrochemical Synthesis as a Methodology towards New Materials. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria R. Pinto
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Campinas CEP 13083-970 Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Gabriel F. Costa
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Campinas CEP 13083-970 Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Eduardo G. Machado
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Campinas CEP 13083-970 Campinas, SP Brazil
- Center for Innovation on New EnergiesUniversity of Campinas CEP 13083-841 Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Raphael Nagao
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Campinas CEP 13083-970 Campinas, SP Brazil
- Center for Innovation on New EnergiesUniversity of Campinas CEP 13083-841 Campinas, SP Brazil
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Autonomous Oscillations and Pattern Formation with Zero External Resistance during Silicon Electrodissolution. Electrochim Acta 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Proost J, Blaffart F, Turner S, Idrissi H. On the origin of damped electrochemical oscillations at silicon anodes (revisited). Chemphyschem 2014; 15:3116-24. [PMID: 25164094 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201402207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical oscillations accompanying the formation of anodic silica have been shown in the past to be correlated with rather abrupt changes in the mechanical stress state of the silica film, commonly associated with some kind of fracture or porosification of the oxide. To advance the understanding on the origin of such oscillations in fluoride-free electrolytes, we have revisited a seminal experiment reported by Lehmann almost two decades ago. We thereby demonstrate that the oscillations are not stress-induced, and do not originate from a morphological transformation of the oxide in the course of anodisation. Alternatively, the mechanical features accompanying the oscillations can be explained by a partial relaxation of the field-induced electrostrictive stress. Furthermore, our observations suggest that the oscillation mechanism more likely results from a periodic depolarisation of the anodic silica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris Proost
- Institute of Mechanics, Materials and Civil Engineering, Université Catholique de Louvain, Place Sainte-Barbe 2, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium).
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Wang K, Liu G, Hoivik N, Johannessen E, Jakobsen H. Electrochemical engineering of hollow nanoarchitectures: pulse/step anodization (Si, Al, Ti) and their applications. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 43:1476-500. [PMID: 24292021 DOI: 10.1039/c3cs60150a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Hollow nanoarchitectured materials with straight channels play a crucial role in the fields of renewable energy, environment and biotechnology due to their one-dimensional morphology and extraordinary properties. The current challenge is the difficulty on tailoring hollow nanoarchitectures with well-controlled morphology at a relatively low cost. As a conventional technique, electrochemistry exhibits its unique advantage on machining nanostructures. In this review, we present the progress of electrochemistry as a valuable tool in construction of novel hollow nanoarchitectures through pulse/step anodization, such as surface pre-texturing, modulated, branched and multilayered pore architectures, and free-standing membranes. Basic principles for electrochemical engineering of mono- or multi-ordered nanostructures as well as free-standing membranes are extracted from specific examples (i.e. porous silicon, aluminum and titanium oxide). The potential of such nanoarchitectures are further demonstrated for the applications of photovoltaics, water splitting, organic degradation, nanostructure templates, biosensors and drug release. The electrochemical techniques provide a powerful approach to produce nanostructures with morphological complexity, which could have far-reaching implications in the design of future nanoscale systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiying Wang
- Department of Micro and Nano Systems Technology, Vestfold University College, Horten, 3184, Norway.
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7
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Bulk concentration and dynamic stability of a model electrochemical system with a preceding chemical reaction. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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A new advance in the study of p-type silicon/electrolyte interface by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11164-013-1195-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Schönleber K, Krischer K. High-Amplitude versus Low-Amplitude Current Oscillations during the Anodic Oxidation of p-Type Silicon in Fluoride Containing Electrolytes. Chemphyschem 2012; 13:2989-96. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201200230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Miethe I, Krischer K. Ellipsomicroscopic studies of the anodic oxidation of p-type silicon in fluoride containing electrolytes during current oscillations. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2011.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Micro- and nanotopographies for photoelectrochemical energy conversion. I: The photovoltaic mode. Electrochim Acta 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Chazalviel JN, Ozanam F. Electrochemically Formed Porous Silica. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2011; 4:825-844. [PMID: 28879953 PMCID: PMC5448587 DOI: 10.3390/ma4050825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Revised: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Controlled electrochemical formation of porous silica can be realized in dilute aqueous, neutral-pH, fluoride medium. Formation of a porous film is initiated by sweeping the potential applied to silicon to values higher than 20 V. Film formation, reaching a steady state, may be pursued in a wide range of potentials, including lower potentials. The origin of a threshold potential for porous film initiation has been explained quantitatively. All of the films appear mesoporous. Films grown at high potentials exhibit a variety of macrostructures superimposed on the mesoporosity. These macrostructures result from selective dissolution of silica induced by local pH lowering due to oxygen evolution. Films grown at potentials lower than 15 V appear uniform on the micrometer scale. However, all of the films also exhibit a stratified structure on the scale of a few tens of nanometres. This periodic structure can be traced back to the oscillatory behavior observed during the electrochemical dissolution of silicon in fluoride medium. It suggests that periodic breaking of the growing film may be responsible for this morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Noël Chazalviel
- Physique de la Matière Condensée, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, 91128 Palaiseau, France.
| | - François Ozanam
- Physique de la Matière Condensée, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, 91128 Palaiseau, France.
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Abstract
Pores in single crystalline semiconductors come in many forms (e.g., pore sizes from 2 nm to > 10 µm; morphologies from perfect pore crystal to fractal) and exhibit many unique properties directly or as nanocompounds if the pores are filled. The various kinds of pores obtained in semiconductors like Ge, Si, III-V, and II-VI compound semiconductors are systematically reviewed, emphasizing macropores. Essentials of pore formation mechanisms will be discussed, focusing on differences and some open questions but in particular on common properties. Possible applications of porous semiconductors, including for example high explosives, high efficiency electrodes for Li ion batteries, drug delivery systems, solar cells, thermoelectric elements and many novel electronic, optical or sensor devices, will be introduced and discussed.
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Chazalviel JN, Ozanam F. Current oscillations in the anodic dissolution of silicon: On the origin of a sustained oscillation on the macroscopic scale. Electrochim Acta 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2009.08.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Föll H, Leisner M, Cojocaru A, Carstensen J. Self-organization phenomena at semiconductor electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2009.03.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Warczak M, Sadkowski A. Oscillatory regime of titanium anodization under voltage control. Electrochem commun 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2009.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Miethe I, García-Morales V, Krischer K. Irregular subharmonic cluster patterns in an autonomous photoelectrochemical oscillator. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2009; 102:194101. [PMID: 19518955 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.102.194101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Unusual subharmonic cluster patterns are observed during the oscillatory electro-oxidation of n-Si(111) under illumination. 2D in situ imaging of the electrode by means of an ellipsometric setup allows local variations in the oxide layer thickness to be monitored. The local oscillators exhibit an irregular distribution of the amplitude with the extrema locked to the constant base frequency of the total current. In addition, Ising 2-phase clustering occurs at half the base frequency. This intrinsic dynamics is described by means of a modified complex Ginzburg-Landau equation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iljana Miethe
- Physik-Department E19, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Strasse 1, D-85748 Garching, Germany
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Cheggou R, Kadoun A, Gabouze N, Ozanam F, Chazalviel JN. Theoretical modelling of the I–V characteristics of p-type silicon in fluoride electrolyte in the first electropolishing plateau. Electrochim Acta 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2008.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Sazou D, Pavlidou M, Pagitsas M. Temporal patterning of the potential induced by localized corrosion of iron passivity in acid media. Growth and breakdown of the oxide film described in terms of a point defect model. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2009; 11:8841-54. [DOI: 10.1039/b906488e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Leisner M, Carstensen J, Föll H. FFT impedance spectroscopy analysis of the growth of anodic oxides on (100) p-Si for various solvents. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2007.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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