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A retrospective data analysis on the induction medications used in trauma rapid sequence intubations and their effects on outcomes. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2022; 48:2275-2286. [PMID: 34357407 PMCID: PMC8343213 DOI: 10.1007/s00068-021-01759-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in trauma patients is common; however, the induction agents used have been debated. We determined which induction medications were used most frequently for adult trauma RSIs and their associations with hemodynamics and outcomes. We hypothesized that etomidate is the most commonly used induction agent and has similar outcomes to other induction agents. METHODS This retrospective review at two U.S. level I trauma centers evaluated adult trauma patients undergoing RSI within 24 h of admission, between 01/01/2016 and 12/31/2017. We compared patient characteristics and outcomes by induction agent. Comparisons on the primary outcome of in-hospital mortality and secondary outcomes of peri-intubation hypotension, hospital and ICU length of stay (LOS), ventilator days, and complications used logistic regression or negative binomial regression. Regression models adjusted for hospital site, age, patient severity measures, and intubation location. RESULTS Among 1303 trauma patients undergoing RSI within 24 h of admission, 948 (73%) were intubated in the emergency department (ED) and 325 (25%) in the operating room (OR). The most common induction agents were etomidate (68%), propofol (17%), and ketamine (11%). In-hospital mortality was highest in the etomidate group (25.5%), followed by ketamine (17%), and propofol (1.8%). CONCLUSION Etomidate was most commonly used in ED intubations; propofol was most used in the OR. Compared to propofol, patients induced with etomidate had higher mortality and complication rates. Findings should be interpreted with caution given limited generalizability and residual confounding by indication.
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Pre-hospital emergent intubation in trauma patients: the influence of etomidate on mortality, morbidity and healthcare resource utilization. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2019; 27:61. [PMID: 31174573 PMCID: PMC6555933 DOI: 10.1186/s13049-019-0637-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Due to its favorable hemodynamic characteristics and by providing good intubation conditions etomidate is often used for induction of general anesthesia in trauma patients. It has been linked to temporary adrenal cortical dysfunction. The clinical relevance of this finding after a single-dose is still lacking appropriate evidence. Methods This retrospective multi-centre study is based on merged data from a German Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) database and a large trauma patient registry. All trauma patients who were intubated prior to hospital admission with a documented Injury Severity Score ≥ 9 between 2008 and 2012 were eligible for analysis. The primary endpoint was hospital mortality. Other outcome measures were organ failures, sepsis, length of ventilation, as well as length of stay in hospital and ICU. Results One thousand six hundred ninety seven patients were enrolled into the study. Seven hundred sixty two patients received etomidate and 935 patients received other induction agents. The in-hospital mortality was similar in both groups (18.9% versus 18.2%; p = 0.71). Incidences of organ failures and sepsis were not increased in the etomidate group. However, health care resource utilization parameters were prolonged (after adjusting: + 1.3 days for ICU length of stay, p = 0.062; + 0.8 days for length of ventilation, p = 0.15; + 2,7 days for hospital length of stay, p = 0.034). A multivariable logistic regression analysis did not identify etomidate as an independent predictor of hospital mortality (OR: 1.10, 95% CI: 0.77–1.57; p = 0.60). Conclusions This is the largest trial investigating outcome data for trauma patients who had received a single-dose of etomidate for induction of anesthesia. The use of etomidate did not affect mortality. The influence on morbidity and health care resource utilization remains unclear.
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Trauma Airway Management: Induction Agents, Rapid Versus Slower Sequence Intubations, and Special Considerations. Anesthesiol Clin 2018; 37:33-50. [PMID: 30711232 DOI: 10.1016/j.anclin.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Trauma patients who require intubation are at higher risk for aspiration, agitation/combativeness, distorted anatomy, hemodynamic instability, an unstable cervical spine, and complicated injuries. Although rapid-sequence intubation is the most common technique in trauma, slow-sequence intubation may reduce the risk for failed intubation and cardiovascular collapse. Providers often choose plans with which they are most comfortable. However, developing a flexible team-based approach, through recognition of complicating factors in trauma patients, improves airway management success.
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Pillay L, Hardcastle T. Collective Review of the Status of Rapid Sequence Intubation Drugs of Choice in Trauma in Low- and Middle-Income Settings (Prehospital, Emergency Department and Operating Room Setting). World J Surg 2017; 41:1184-1192. [PMID: 27646281 DOI: 10.1007/s00268-016-3712-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Establishing a definitive airway in order to ensure adequate ventilation and oxygenation is an important aspect of resuscitation of the polytrauma patient . AIM To review the relevant literature that compares the different drugs used for rapid sequence intubation (RSI) of trauma patients, specifically reviewing: premedication, induction agents and neuromuscular blocking agents across the prehospital, emergency department and operating room setting, and to present the best practices based on the reviewed evidence. METHOD A literature review of rapid sequence intubation in the trauma population was carried out, specifically comparison of the drugs used (induction agent, neuromuscular blocking drugs and adjuncts). DISCUSSION Studies involving the comparison of drugs used in RSI in, specifically, the trauma patient are sparse. The majority of studies have compared induction agents, etomidate, ketamine and propofol, as well as the neuromuscular blocking agents, succinylcholine and rocuronium. CONCLUSION There currently exists great variation in the practice of RSI; however, in trauma the RSI armamentarium is limited to agents that maintain hemodynamic stability, provide adequate intubating conditions in the shortest time period and do not have detrimental effects on cerebral perfusion pressure. Further, multicenter randomized controlled studies to confirm the benefits of the currently used agents in trauma are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leressè Pillay
- Department of Anaesthetics, Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital, Mayville, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. .,Division of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Timothy Hardcastle
- Trauma Unit, Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital, 800 Vusi Mzimela Rd, Mayville, Durban, 4058, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.,Trauma Training Unit, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The board certification process for qualification by the American Board of Anesthesiology is undergoing significant review. A basic sciences examination has been added to the process and the traditional oral examination is evolving into a combined oral interview and practical skills assessment. These recent developments, as well as the growing body of evidence regarding the resuscitation of trauma patients, call for a revision in the curriculum beyond the documentation of participation in the anesthetics of 20 trauma patients. RECENT FINDINGS The implications of the 80-h work week are beginning to be appreciated. The development of a new trauma curriculum must take this significant change in residency training into account while incorporating modern educational theory (e.g. simulation) and new data on the resuscitation of trauma patients. SUMMARY Currently, the curriculum for trauma anesthesia requires only that residents participate in the anesthetics of 20 trauma patients. There is no plan for, and little literature regarding, a more extensive educational program. This offers a unique opportunity to innovate a novel curriculum in the anesthesiology residency. The American Society of Anesthesiologists Committee on Trauma and Emergency Preparedness has designed a curriculum that can serve as a template for this important step forward in anesthesiology education.
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Zettervall SL, Sirajuddin S, Akst S, Valdez C, Golshani C, Amdur RL, Sarani B, Dunne JR. Use of propofol as an induction agent in the acutely injured patient. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2014; 41:405-11. [PMID: 26038005 DOI: 10.1007/s00068-014-0479-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Etomidate is a commonly used agent for rapid sequence induction (RSI) in trauma due to its limited hemodynamic effects. Given a recent nationwide shortage of etomidate, alternative induction agents may be required. Propofol is a frequent substitute; however, concern exists regarding its potential hypotensive effects. The study attempts to determine the hemodynamic effects of propofol and etomidate following RSI in trauma bay. METHODS A retrospective study was performed on 76 consecutive trauma patients requiring RSI at a single academic medical center. Patients were stratified by age, gender, mechanism of injury, Injury Severity Score (ISS), and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). Pre-induction and post-induction hemodynamic parameters were evaluated, and a multivariate regression analysis was performed. RESULTS The mean age was 42, ISS was 13, and GCS was 9.8. The mean dose of propofol was 127 ± 5 mg and the mean dose of etomidate was 21 ± 6 mg. Patients who received propofol were younger and had a lower ISS. The etomidate group had significantly increased post-induction systolic blood pressure but no difference in mean arterial pressure or heart rate when compared to pre-induction parameters. The propofol group had no significant changes in any post-induction parameter compared to pre-induction parameter. CONCLUSION RSI with propofol did not result in hypotension in our patient population, suggesting that a reduced dose of propofol may represent a reasonable alternative to etomidate in hemodynamically stable trauma patient. Further research is warranted to assess the safety of propofol in the acutely injured patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Zettervall
- Department of Surgery, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 2150 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Suite 6B, Washington, DC, 20037, USA,
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Trentzsch H, Münzberg M, Luxen J, Urban B, Prückner S. Etomidat zur „rapid sequence induction“ bei schwerem Trauma. Notf Rett Med 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10049-014-1899-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Hinkewich C, Green R. The impact of etomidate on mortality in trauma patients. Can J Anaesth 2014; 61:650-5. [PMID: 24723214 DOI: 10.1007/s12630-014-0161-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Etomidate has a neutral hemodynamic profile which has made it an attractive medication for emergent intubation. Despite theoretical advantages of etomidate administration in the trauma patient, there are incomplete data to support its use. This study examined the association of etomidate use for emergent intubation in traumatic illness with patient mortality. METHODS This is a historical cohort study using the Nova Scotia Trauma Registry. It included all major adult trauma patients who required tracheal intubation at the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre in Halifax, Canada from January 23, 2000 to March 25, 2012. Prospectively recorded data were analyzed, including patient demographics, presence of comorbidities, trauma specific variables, admission and discharge vitals, length of stay in the intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital, mechanical ventilation-free days, and mortality. Associations between the use of etomidate and 28-day mortality are presented as odds ratios. Multivariable logistic regression models were created adjusting for age, injury severity score (ISS), sex, comorbidities, presence of traumatic brain injury, and injury type. The effects of etomidate on other relevant outcome variables were assessed using unpaired Student's t-tests. RESULTS Three hundred eight patients were included in the study, and there were 42 deaths. Patients receiving etomidate were similar to those who did not, including ISS and pre-intubation blood pressure. The 28-day mortality was 18.7% in the etomidate group and 11.1% in the non-etomidate group (odds ratio = 1.85; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.96 to 3.57; P = 0.07). After adjustment for age, female sex, ISS, and comorbidity, the odds ratio was 1.94 (95% CI 0.87 to 4.37; P = 0.11). There were no differences between the two groups in ICU length of stay, hospital length of stay, or number of ventilation-free days. CONCLUSION The association between use of a single dose of etomidate for emergency tracheal intubation in the trauma patient and mortality is inconclusive. Etomidate administration should be used with caution in trauma patients requiring tracheal intubation. Further data are required to determine the safety and risk-benefit of etomidate use in this patient population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Hinkewich
- Division of Critical Care, Department of Anesthesia, Capital Health, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To evaluate the most recent publications in the long-lived debate over the use of etomidate in critically ill septic and trauma patients. RECENT FINDINGS Virtually without controversy is the hemodynamic stability after its use for induction of anesthesia on the one hand, and its negative effect on steroid synthesis on the other. The rating of the relative importance of both phenomena for the outcome of patients is however a highly controversial issue. We will discuss the most recent publications for two patient groups: trauma and critically ill septic patients. New meta-analyses and smaller studies have been published and might help us to weigh pros and cons in our patients. Sufficiently powered randomized controlled trials remain absent. The question whether supplemented corticosteroids after etomidate improve outcome is answered negatively by two recent studies. SUMMARY A single dose of etomidate supplies good intubation conditions with hemodynamic stability, but increases the risk for adrenal insufficiency. The relative importance of these characteristics for the patients' outcome remains controversial, as there is a lack of direct evidence. According to the principle 'nihil nocere', reasoning argues against its use, especially in septic patients or in those at major risk to develop septic complications (e.g. trauma patients).
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Tobin JM, Grabinsky A, McCunn M, Pittet JF, Smith CE, Murray MJ, Varon AJ. A checklist for trauma and emergency anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2013; 117:1178-84. [PMID: 24108256 DOI: 10.1213/ane.0b013e3182a44d3e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua M Tobin
- From the *Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; †Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Harborview Medical Center/University of Washington, Seattle, WA; ‡Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA; §Department of Anesthesiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL; ‖Department of Anesthesiology, Case Western Reserve University/MetroHealth Medical Center, Cleveland, OH; ¶Department of Anesthesiology, Ryder Trauma Center/University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL; and #Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ
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Dunham CM, Chirichella TJ, Gruber BS, Ferrari JP, Martin JA, Luchs BA, Hileman BM, Merrell R. In emergently ventilated trauma patients, low end-tidal CO2 and low cardiac output are associated and correlate with hemodynamic instability, hemorrhage, abnormal pupils, and death. BMC Anesthesiol 2013; 13:20. [PMID: 24020798 PMCID: PMC3846857 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2253-13-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In a smaller experience, the authors previously demonstrated that end-tidal carbon dioxide (PetCO2) and cardiac output (CO) had a positive association in emergently intubated trauma patients during Emergency Department resuscitation. The aim of this larger study was to reassess the relationship of PetCO2 with CO and identify patient risk-conditions influencing PetCO2 and CO values. Methods The investigation consists of acutely injured trauma patients requiring emergency tracheal intubation. The study focuses on the prospective collection of PetCO2 and noninvasive CO monitor (NICOM®) values in the Emergency Department. Results From the end of March through August 2011, 73 patients had 318 pairs of PetCO2 (mm Hg) and CO (L/min.) values. Mean data included Injury Severity Score (ISS) ≥15 in 65.2%, Glasgow Coma Score of 6.4 ± 4.6, hypotension in 19.0%, and death in 34.3%. With PetCO2 ≤ 25 (15.9 ± 8.0), systolic blood pressure was 77.0 ± 69, CO was 3.2 ± 3.0, cardiac arrest was 60.4%, and mortality was 84.9%. During hypotension, CO was lower with major blood loss (1.9), than without major loss (5.0; P = 0.0008). Low PetCO2 was associated with low CO (P < 0.0001). Low PetCO2 was associated (P ≤ 0.0012) with ISS > 20, hypotension, bradycardia, major blood loss, abnormal pupils, cardiac arrest, and death. Low CO was associated (P ≤ 0.0059) with ISS > 20, hypotension, bradycardia, major blood loss, abnormal pupils, cardiac arrest, and death. Conclusions During emergency department resuscitation, a decline in PetCO2 correlates with decreases in noninvasive CO in emergently intubated trauma patients. Decreasing PetCO2 and declining NICOM CO are associated with hemodynamic instability, hemorrhage, abnormal pupils, and death. The study indicates that NICOM CO values are clinically discriminate and have physiologic validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Michael Dunham
- Trauma/Critical Services, Level I Trauma Center, St, Elizabeth Health Center, 1044 Belmont Avenue, Youngstown, OH 44501, USA.
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Weng D, Huang M, Jiang R, Zhan R, Yang C. Clinical study of etomidate emulsion combined with remifentanil in general anesthesia. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2013; 7:771-6. [PMID: 23990706 PMCID: PMC3753064 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s45979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to investigate and evaluate the safety, recovery time, and side effects of general anesthesia with different doses of etomidate emulsion combined with remifentanil. METHODS One hundred ten patients of American Society of Anesthesiologists class 1 or 2 who underwent gynecological general anesthesia with a 1-3-hour operation time were randomly divided into the following groups: etomidate emulsion group 1 ([E1] n = 30); etomidate emulsion group 2 ([E2] n = 30); etomidate emulsion group 3 ([E3] n = 20); and propofol group ([P group] n = 30). For induction of anesthesia, 0.3 mg/kg etomidate emulsion, and the continuous remifentanil infusion also to induce anesthesia (0.1~0.3 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1)), was applied in all cases. Afterwards, continuous infusion of etomidate emulsion and remifentanil, respectively (E1: 10 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1) and 0.1 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1); E2: 15 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1) and 0.2 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1); E3: 20 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1) and 0.2 μg · kg(-1) · min(-1)), and propofol (P group: 6~10 mg · kg(-1) · h(-1)) were administered. Changes in blood flow kinetics and adverse reactions were noted and compared between the four groups. RESULTS Both arterial blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) decreased after induction of anesthesia (P < 0.05). Systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) BP changed only slightly, and HRs were slightly infected in E1, E2, and E3. SBP, DBP, and HR during the operation all decreased significantly in P group (P < 0.05). Muscle tremor at the time of induction occurred in 13 cases (11.8%). Following etomidate emulsion anesthesia maintenance, postoperative agitation occurred in seven cases (8.75%), lethargy in 20 cases (25%), and vomiting in 19 cases (23.75%). No adverse reactions were found in P group. CONCLUSION Continuous infusion of etomidate emulsion at 10 μg · kg(-1) · minute(-1) combined with remifentanil during anesthesia has the advantages of hemodynamic stability, quick wake-up, and few adverse reactions. Increasing the dose of etomidate emulsion increases the incidence of adverse reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Digui Weng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Mindong Hospital/Fujian Medical University, Fuan, Fujian, People's Republic of China.
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