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van der Heijden LT, van den Hondel KE, Olyslager EJH, de Jong LAA, Reijnders UJL, Franssen EJF. Internet-Purchased Sodium Azide Used in a Fatal Suicide Attempt: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. TOXICS 2023; 11:608. [PMID: 37505573 PMCID: PMC10385699 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11070608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
There has been a significant increase in sodium azide intoxications since the 1980s. Intoxications caused by sodium azide are becoming increasingly prevalent in the Netherlands as a result of its promotion for the purpose of self-euthanasia. The mechanism of toxicity is not completely understood but is dose-dependent. The presented case describes a suicide by sodium azide of a young woman (26 years old) with a history of depression and suicide attempts. The decedent was found in the presence of prescription medicine, including temazepam, domperidone in combination with omeprazole, and the chemical preservative sodium azide. Quantitative toxicology screening of whole blood revealed the presence of 70 µg/L temazepam (toxic range > 1000 µg/L) and 28 mg/L sodium azide (fatal range: 2.6-262 mg/L). Whole blood qualitative analysis revealed the presence of temazepam, temazepam-glucuronide, olanzapine, n-desmethylolanzapine, and acetaminophen. In circles promoting sodium azide, it is recommended to use sodium azide in combination with medications targeting sodium azide's negative effects, such as analgesics, antiemetics, and anti-anxiety drugs. The medicines recovered at the body's location, as well as the results of the toxicology screens, were consistent with the recommendations of self-euthanasia using sodium azide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa T van der Heijden
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek/The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Division of Pharmacology, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek/The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Erik J H Olyslager
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Expert Center Gelre-iLab, Gelre Hospitals, 1066 CX Apeldoorn/Zutphen, The Netherlands
| | - Lutea A A de Jong
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Expert Center Gelre-iLab, Gelre Hospitals, 1066 CX Apeldoorn/Zutphen, The Netherlands
| | - Udo J L Reijnders
- Department of Forensic Medicine, GGD Amsterdam, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eric J F Franssen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, OLVG Hospital, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Tat J, Chang SC, Link CD, Razo-Lopez S, Ingerto MJ, Katebian B, Chan A, Kalyanaraman H, Pilz RB, Boss GR. The vitamin B 12 analog cobinamide ameliorates azide toxicity in cells, Drosophila melanogaster, and mice. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2023; 61:212-222. [PMID: 37010385 PMCID: PMC10348668 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2023.2185125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The azide anion (N3-) is highly toxic. It exists most commonly as sodium azide, which is used widely and is readily available, raising the potential for occupational incidents and use as a weapon of mass destruction. Azide-poisoned patients present with vomiting, seizures, hypotension, metabolic acidosis, and coma; death can occur. No specific azide antidote exists, with treatment being solely supportive. Azide inhibits mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and is likely oxidized to nitric oxide in vivo. Cytochrome c oxidase inhibition depletes intracellular adenosine triphosphate and increases oxidative stress, while increased nitric oxide causes hypotension and exacerbates oxidative damage. Here, we tested whether the cobalamin (vitamin B12) analog cobinamide, a strong and versatile antioxidant that also neutralizes nitric oxide, can reverse azide toxicity in mammalian cells, Drosophila melanogaster, and mice. RESULTS We found cobinamide bound azide with a moderate affinity (Ka 2.87 × 105 M-1). Yet, cobinamide improved growth, increased intracellular adenosine triphosphate, and reduced apoptosis and malondialdehyde, a marker of oxidative stress, in azide-exposed cells. Cobinamide rescued Drosophila melanogaster and mice from lethal exposure to azide and was more effective than hydroxocobalamin. Azide likely generated nitric oxide in the mice, as evidenced by increased serum nitrite and nitrate, and reduced blood pressure and peripheral body temperature in the animals; the reduced temperature was likely due to reflex vasoconstriction in response to the hypotension. Cobinamide improved recovery of both blood pressure and body temperature. CONCLUSION We conclude cobinamide likely acted by neutralizing both oxidative stress and nitric oxide, and that it should be given further consideration as an azide antidote.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Tat
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Stephen C. Chang
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Cole D. Link
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Suelen Razo-Lopez
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Michael J. Ingerto
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Behdod Katebian
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Adriano Chan
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Hema Kalyanaraman
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Renate B. Pilz
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
| | - Gerry R. Boss
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0652
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Mackie BR, Weber S, Mitchell ML, Crilly J, Wilson B, Handy M, Wullschleger M, Sharpe J, McCaffery K, Lister P, Boyd M, Watkins N, Ranse J. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, or Nuclear Response in Queensland Emergency Services: A Multisite Study. Health Secur 2022; 20:222-229. [PMID: 35612425 DOI: 10.1089/hs.2021.0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A disaster overwhelms the normal operating capacity of a health service. Minimal research exists regarding Australian hospitals' capacity to respond to chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) disasters. This article, and the research supporting it, begins to fill that research gap. We conducted a descriptive quantitative study with 5 tertiary hospitals and 1 rural hospital in Queensland, Australia. The study population was the hospitals' clinical leaders for disaster preparedness. The 25-item survey consisted of questions relating to each hospital's current response capacity, physical surge capacity, and human surge capacity in response to a CBRN disaster. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The survey data indicated that over the previous 12 months, each site reached operational capacity on average 66 times and that capacity to respond and create additional emergency, intensive care, or surgical beds varied greatly across the sites. In the previous 12 months, only 2 sites reported undertaking specific hospital-wide training to manage a CBRN disaster, and 3 sites reported having suitable personal protective equipment required for hazardous materials. There was a noted shortfall in all the hospitals' capacity to respond to a radiological disaster in particular. Queensland hospitals are crucial to CBRN disaster response, and they have areas for improvement in their response and capacity to surge when compared with international preparedness benchmarks. CBRN-focused education and training must be prioritized using evidence-based training approaches to better prepare hospitals to respond following a disaster event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R Mackie
- Benjamin R. Mackie, PhD, MAdvPrac, MN, is a Senior Instructor, Army School of Health, Bonegilla, Victoria. Benjamin R. Mackie is also an Adjunct Associate Professor; at Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sarah Weber
- Sarah Weber, RN, MPH, is a Clinical Nurse, Emergency Department, at Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Marion L Mitchell
- Marion L. Mitchell, PhD, BN, is an Emeritus Professor; at Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia. Marion L. Mitchell is an Emeritus Professor, Intensive Care Department; at Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Julia Crilly
- Julia Crilly, OAM, RN, MEmergN, PhD, is a Professor; the Department of Emergency Medicine, Gold Coast Health, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bridget Wilson
- Bridget Wilson, BN, is a Research Nurse; the Department of Emergency Medicine, Gold Coast Health, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Handy
- Michael Handy, BNur, MNurSciNP, is Assistant Nursing Director, the Trauma Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Martin Wullschleger
- Martin Wullschleger, MD, PhD, FRACS, FACS, is Director of Trauma; the Trauma Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Joseph Sharpe
- Joseph Sharpe, RN, BN, CNC, is a Clinical Nurse Consultant, Trauma Service, Townsville Hospital and Health Service, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kevin McCaffery
- Kevin McCaffery, MD, is a Paediatric Intensivist, Queensland Children's Hospital, Queensland, Australia
| | - Paula Lister
- Paula Lister, MBBCh, PhD, is an Associate Professor, Griffith University, and Director, Paediatric Critical Care, Sunshine Coast University Hospital and Health Service, Queensland, Australia
| | - Matt Boyd
- Matt Boyd, RN, RM, is a Nurse Unit Manager, Emergency, Darling Downs Health Service, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nathan Watkins
- Nathan Watkins, MBChB, BPhty, FACEM, Emergency Senior Staff Specialist; the Department of Emergency Medicine, Gold Coast Health, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jamie Ranse
- Jamie Ranse, RN, PhD, is an Associate Professor; at Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
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Tat J, Heskett K, Satomi S, Pilz RB, Golomb BA, Boss GR. Sodium azide poisoning: a narrative review. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2021; 59:683-697. [PMID: 34128439 PMCID: PMC8349855 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2021.1906888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Sodium azide is a highly toxic chemical. Its production has increased dramatically over the last 30 years due to its widespread use in vehicular airbags, and it is available for purchase online. Thus, accidental exposure to azide or use as a homicidal or suicidal agent could be on the rise, and secondary exposure to medical personnel can occur. No antidote exists for azide poisoning. We conducted a systematic review of azide poisoning to assess recent poisoning reports, exposure scenarios, clinical presentations, and treatment strategies. METHODS We searched both medical and newspaper databases to review the literature between 01/01/2000 and 12/31/2020, pairing the controlled vocabulary and keyword terms "sodium azide" or "hydrazoic acid" with terms relating to exposures and outcomes, such as "ingestion," "inhalation," "exposure," "poisoning," and "death." We included all peer-reviewed papers and news articles describing human azide poisoning cases from English and non-English publications that could be identified using English keywords. Data abstracted included the number, age, and gender of cases, mode of exposure, exposure setting, azide dose and route of exposure, symptoms, outcome, and treatment modalities. RESULTS We identified 663 peer-reviewed papers and 303 newspaper articles. After removing duplicated and non-qualifying sources, 54 publications were reviewed describing 156 cases, yielding an average of 7.8 reported azide poisoning cases per year. This rate is three times higher than in a previous review covering the period of 1927 to 1999. Poisoning occurred most commonly in laboratory workers, during secondary exposure of medical personnel, or from a ripped airbag. Hypotension occurred commonly, in some cases requiring vasopressors and one patient received an intra-aortic ballon pump. Gastric lavage and/or activated charcoal were used for oral azide ingestion, and sodium nitrite, sodium thiosulfate, and/or hydroxocobalamin were used in severely poisoned patients. CONCLUSIONS Recent increases in azide poisoning reports may stem from greater commercial use and availability. Treatment of systemic poisoning may require aggressive hemodynamic support due to profound hypotension. Based on mechanistic considerations, hydroxocobalamin is a rational choice for treating azide poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Tat
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Karen Heskett
- The Library, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Shiho Satomi
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Renate B. Pilz
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Beatrice A. Golomb
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Gerry R. Boss
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Wachełko O, Zawadzki M, Szpot P. A novel procedure for stabilization of azide in biological samples and method for its determination (HS-GC-FID/FID). Sci Rep 2021; 11:15568. [PMID: 34330976 PMCID: PMC8324859 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95104-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Sodium azide is an old poison with toxicity comparable to potassium cyanide. It would seem to be completely forgotten however, between 2000 and 2020, the number of intentional ingestions and murders committed with sodium azide significantly increased. Furthermore, due to its extreme instability, sodium azide is difficult to detect, which poses an additional risk when used to commit a crime. In this study, the epidemiology of sodium azide exposures between 1920 and 2020 was investigated. For the determination the azide concentration in biological samples, a simple, precise and selective headspace gas chromatography method (HS-GC-FID/FID) was developed and fully validated. The limit of quantification was 0.65 µg/mL; and the limit of detection was 0.35 µg/mL; precision and accuracy did not exceed 20%. The stability study was conducted for various biological fluids (urine, bile, blood, gastric content) for 91 days in the refrigerator (4 °C) and the method for stabilization of azide was presented. The addition of a mixture of borax and sodium fluoride (w/w 3:1) to the test tubes can stabilize this poison. The described unique technique of collecting the biological samples poses a great potential for azide detection in clinical and toxicology laboratories even long time after human exposure to this substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Wachełko
- Institute of Toxicology Research, 45 Kasztanowa Street, 55093, Borowa, Poland
| | - Marcin Zawadzki
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, 4 J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego Street, 50345, Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Paweł Szpot
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, 4 J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego Street, 50345, Wroclaw, Poland
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Frawley KL, Carpenter Totoni S, Bae Y, Pearce LL, Peterson J. A Comparison of Potential Azide Antidotes in a Mouse Model. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:594-603. [PMID: 31922405 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Three cobalt-containing macrocyclic compounds previously shown to antagonize cyanide toxicity have been comparatively evaluated for the amelioration of sublethal azide toxicity in juvenile (7-8 weeks) Swiss-Webster mice. The lowest effective doses were determined for hydroxocobalamin, a cobalt porphyrin, and a cobalt-Schiff base macrocycle by giving the antidotes 5 min prior to the toxicant, 27 mg (415 μmol) /kg sodium azide. Both male and female mice were evaluated for their response to the toxicant as well as the antidotes, and no significant differences were noted once weight differences were taken into account. Two of the three compounds significantly decreased the recovery time of azide-intoxicated mice at 10 min after the administration of sodium azide, as determined by a behavioral test (pole climbing). Additionally, azide was determined to cause a several degree drop (∼3 °C) in measured tail temperature, and warming the mice led to a more rapid recovery. The mice were also shown to recover more rapidly when given sodium nitrite, 24 mg (350 μmol)/kg, 5 min after the toxicant; this treatment also suppressed the azide-induced tail temperature decrease. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements of mouse blood treated with sodium azide demonstrated the presence of nitrosylhemoglobin at levels of 10-20 μM which persisted for ∼300 min. The presence of the methemoglobin azide adduct was also detected by EPR at a maximum level of ∼300 μM, but these signals disappeared around 200 min after the administration of azide. The treatment of mice with 15N sodium azide proved that the nitrosylhemoglobin was a product of the administered azide by the appearance of a two-line hyperfine (due to the 15N) in the EPR spectrum of mouse blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin L Frawley
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , 130 DeSoto Street , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15219 , United States
| | - Samantha Carpenter Totoni
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , 130 DeSoto Street , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15219 , United States
| | - Yookyung Bae
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , 130 DeSoto Street , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15219 , United States
| | - Linda L Pearce
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , 130 DeSoto Street , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15219 , United States
| | - Jim Peterson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , 130 DeSoto Street , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15219 , United States
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Praekunatham H, Garrett KK, Bae Y, Cronican AA, Frawley KL, Pearce LL, Peterson J. A Cobalt Schiff-Base Complex as a Putative Therapeutic for Azide Poisoning. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:333-342. [PMID: 31599574 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
There is presently no antidote available to treat azide poisoning. Here, the Schiff-base compound Co(II)-2,12-dimethyl-3,7,11,17-tetraazabicyclo-[11.3.1]heptadeca-1(17)2,11,13,15-pentaenyl dibromide (Co(II)N4[11.3.1]) is investigated to determine if it has the capability to antagonize azide toxicity through a decorporation mechanism. The stopped-flow kinetics of azide binding to Co(II)N4[11.3.1] in the absence of oxygen exhibited three experimentally observable phases: I (fast); II (intermediate); and III (slow). The intermediate phase II accounted for ∼70% of the overall absorbance changes, representing the major process observed, with second-order rate constants of 29 (±4) M-1 s-1 at 25 °C and 70 (±10) M-1 s-1 at 37 °C. The data demonstrated pH independence of the reaction around neutrality, suggesting the unprotonated azide anion to be the attacking species. The binding of azide to Co(II)N4[11.3.1] appears to have a complicated mechanism leading to less than ideal antidotal capability; nonetheless, this cobalt complex does protect against azide intoxication. Administration of Co(II)N4[11.3.1] at 5 min post sodium azide injection (ip) to mice resulted in a substantial decrease of righting-recovery times, 12 (±4) min, compared to controls, 40 (±8) min. In addition, only two out of seven mice "knocked down" when the antidote was administered compared to the controls given toxicant only (100% knockdown).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirunwut Praekunatham
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Kimberly K Garrett
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Yookyung Bae
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Andrea A Cronican
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Kristin L Frawley
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Linda L Pearce
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Jim Peterson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health , The University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
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Kudo K, Usumoto Y, Sameshima N, Okumura M, Tsuji A, Ikeda N. Reliable determination of cyanide, thiocyanate and azide in human whole blood by GC–MS, and its application in NAGINATA–GC–MS screening. Forensic Toxicol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-017-0397-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Hines JZ, Bancroft J, Powell M, Hedberg K. Case Finding Using Syndromic Surveillance Data During an Outbreak of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O26 Infections, Oregon, 2015. Public Health Rep 2017; 132:448-450. [PMID: 28586629 PMCID: PMC5507422 DOI: 10.1177/0033354917708994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) causes an estimated 265 000 infections in the United States annually. Of emerging non-O157:H7 STEC serotypes, O26 is the most commonly recognized. During an outbreak of STEC O26 in Oregon in 2015, we used syndromic surveillance data to supplement case finding by laboratory reporting. From 157 records retrieved by querying syndromic surveillance data, we detected 4 confirmed and 5 suspected cases. However, none of the suspected cases were confirmed by stool culture, and by the time that the data were being analyzed, the confirmed cases were already known to investigators. Syndromic surveillance data can potentially supplement case finding during outbreaks of foodborne disease. To be an effective case-finding strategy, timely completion of all steps, including collecting specimens from suspected cases, should be performed in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Z. Hines
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Public Health Division, Oregon Health Authority, Portland, OR, USA
| | - June Bancroft
- Public Health Division, Oregon Health Authority, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Melissa Powell
- Public Health Division, Oregon Health Authority, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Katrina Hedberg
- Public Health Division, Oregon Health Authority, Portland, OR, USA
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Khataee AR, Pakdehi SG. Removal of sodium azide from aqueous solution by Fenton-like process using natural laterite as a heterogeneous catalyst: Kinetic modeling based on nonlinear regression analysis. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2014.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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