Proteomic analysis of anti-tumor effects by Rhizoma Paridis total saponin treatment in HepG2 cells

New steroidal saponins from the roots of Paris verticillata

Four new polyhydroxylated steroidal saponins, parisverticillatosides A-D (1-4), together with four known spirostanol saponins (5-8) were isolated from the roots of Paris verticillata. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis and chemical evidences. The discovery of the new compounds 1-4 extended the diversity and complexity of this spirostanol saponin family. The saponins 5 and 6 exhibited cytotoxicities against two human glioma cell lines.

Exploration of the profiles of steroidal saponins from Rhizoma Paridis and their metabolites in rats by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS

INTRODUCTION

Steroidal saponins characterised by intricate chemical structures are the main active components of a well-known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) Rhizoma Paridis. The metabolic profiles of steroidal saponins in vivo remain largely unexplored, despite their renowned antitumor, immunostimulating, and haemostatic activity.

OBJECTIVE

To perform a comprehensive analysis of the chemical constituents of Rhizoma Paridis total saponins (RPTS) and their metabolites in rats after oral administration.

METHOD

The chemical constituents of RPTS and their metabolites were analysed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS).

RESULTS

A reliable UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS method was established, and a total of 142 compounds were identified in RPTS. Specifically, diosgenin-type saponins showed the diagnostic ions at m/z 415.32, 397.31, 283.25, 271.21, and 253.20, whereas pennogenin-type saponins exhibited the diagnostic ions at m/z 413.31, 395.30, and 251.20. Based on the characteristic fragments and standard substances, 15 specific metabolites were further identified in the faeces, urine, plasma, and bile of rats. The metabolic pathways of RPTS, including phase I reactions (de-glycosylation and oxidation) and phase II reactions (glucuronidation), were explored and summarised, and the enrichment of metabolites was characterised by multivariate statistical analysis.

CONCLUSION

The intricate RPTS could be transformed into relatively simple metabolites in rats through de-glycosylation, which provides a reference for further metabolic studies and screening of active ingredients for TCM.

Steroidal saponins from the roots of Paris verticillata and their anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory activities

Thirteen previously undescribed steroidal saponins, named parisverticilloside A-M (1-13) and twenty known steroidal saponins (14-33) were isolated from ethanol extract of the roots of Paris verticillata. Their structures were identified by a series of spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS, optical rotatory dispersion and chemical processes. The anti-proliferative activities of all compounds against LN229, HepG2, MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cell lines were evaluated using the CCK8 assay with cisplatin or capecitabine as the positive control. The anti-inflammatory activities of all compounds were measured by inhibition of LPS-induced NO release from BV2 cell lines, with dexamethasone as the positive control.

Therapeutic effects on cancer of the active ingredients in rhizoma paridis

Cancer is a major threat to human health, with high mortality and a low cure rate, continuously challenging public health worldwide. Extensive clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for patients with poor outcomes of radiotherapy and chemotherapy provides a new direction in anticancer therapy. Anticancer mechanisms of the active ingredients in TCM have also been extensively studied in the medical field. As a type of TCM against cancer, Rhizoma Paridis (Chinese name: Chonglou) has important antitumor effects in clinical application. The main active ingredients of Rhizoma Paridis (e.g., total saponins, polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin VI, and polyphyllin VII) have shown strong antitumor activities in various cancers, such as breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and gastric cancer. Rhizoma Paridis also has low concentrations of certain other active ingredients with antitumor effects, such as saponins polyphyllin E, polyphyllin H, Paris polyphylla-22, gracillin, and formosanin-C. Many researchers have studied the anticancer mechanism of Rhizoma Paridis and its active ingredients. This review article describes research progress regarding the molecular mechanism and antitumor effects of the active ingredients in Rhizoma Paridis, suggesting that various active ingredients in Rhizoma Paridis may be potentially therapeutic against cancer.

The Antitumoral Effect of Paris Saponin II on Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinomas Mediated via the Nitric Oxide Metabolic Pathway

Paris saponin has shown great therapeutic value in cancer therapy. We used isolated Paris saponin II (PSII), an active component of Paris saponin, and demonstrated its antitumor effect on human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. Additionally, we investigated its mechanisms of action in vivo by establishing a xenograft mouse model. The results showed that PSII had presented strong anticancer effects on both hypopharyngeal malignant tumor cell lines (FaDu) and laryngeal carcinoma cell lines (Tu212 and Tu686). In addition, we successfully isolated and cultured the head and neck squamous stem cells and the primary fibroblasts to perform metabonomics studies. The results showed that RPII remarkably decreased energy metabolism, and type III nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3) may be a target to block tumor growth. Furthermore, we found that PSII inhibited HNSCC proliferation and metastasis by inhibiting the nitric oxide metabolic pathway. Overall, these results demonstrated that PSII is a potent anticancer agent, and the metabonomics analysis is a valuable tool to investigate and establish the antitumor effects of traditional Chinese medicines.

Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activities of Steroid Saponins Isolated from Rhizoma Paridis

Rhizoma Paridis, the rhizome of liliaceous plants Paris polyphylla, is one of the most commonly used herbal drugs in China. Phytochemical and pharmacological studies have shown that steroid saponins were the major effective ingredients of Rhizoma Paridis to exert antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hemostasis, and antifibrosis functions. In this review, we discussed the chemical structures of steroid saponins and their related biological activity and mechanisms in cellular and animal models, aiming to provide a reference for future comprehensive exploitation and development of saponins.

NMR-based Metabolomic Techniques Identify the Anticancer Effects of Three Polyphyllins in HepG2 Cells

Background:

Rhizoma Paridis (RP) is a traditional Chinese herb used for the treatment of tumors, detoxification and hemostasia. Studies show the main components of RP are Polyphyllin I (PPI), polyphyllin VI (PPVI), and polyphyllin VII (PPVII). However, the pharmaco-mechanisms of these compounds are not clear.

Objective:

By used 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance (1 H-NMR) based metabolomics approach to identify the Anticancer effects of PPI, PPVI and PPVII in HepG2 cells. Methods 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance (1 H-NMR) based metabolomics approach was applied to investigate the toxicological effect of PPI, PPVI, PPVII on HepG2 cells. Multivariate statistical analysis was employed to examine the metabolic changes and abnormal metabolic pathways, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA), and orthogonal PLS-DA (OPLS-DA).

Results:

The results showed that the effects of metabolic phenotypes were affected separately by PPI, PPVI, and PPVII. The metabolic phenotypes were also changed over time. The characteristic metabolites were varied by affecting different polyphylins, which were identified by the reconstructed OPLSDA loading plots. According to the characteristic metabolites, the mainly disturbed metabolic pathways were found, such as alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, pyruvate metabolism, glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism.

Conclusion:

The current work could allow us to understand the therapeutic effect of RP in metabolism. It also indicated that RP would be a promising candidate for liver cancer treatment.

Anti-proliferative and Apoptosis Induction Activity of Rhizome Extracts of Paris polyphylla Smith on Oral Cancer Cell

Background:

Paris polyphylla is a member of the family of Melanthiaceae (earlier Trilliaceae or Liliaceae). It is known as love apple in English. This traditional herbaceous medicinal plant is found mostly in South East Asia.

Objective:

To investigate the anti-proliferative and apoptosis induction activity of crude extracts of P. polyphylla on SAS oral cancer cell lines.

Methods:

The crude extracts (CE) of P. polyphylla (PP) collected from Rambrai (R), Meghalaya (Northeast India) were prepared by using 70% ethanol (E) and 70% methanol (M) solvents and named as PPR-ECE and PPR-MCE. The anti-proliferative effects of PPR-ECE and PPR-MCE were tested using the MTT assay. The apoptosis was examined by Annexin V-FITC/PI doublestaining assay.

Results:

PPR-ECE significantly (p≤ 0.05) decreased the proliferation of SAS cells up to 3.12% with an IC50 value of 25.84 μg/ml. Whereas, PPR-MCE decreased the survival rate of SAS cells up to 24.67% (p≤ 0.05) with an IC50 value of 425 μg/ml. PPR-ECE demonstrated higher cytotoxicity than PPR-MCE against SAS cells. When SAS cells were treated with PPR-ECE and PPR-MCE for 72 h, the apoptotic cells increased from 0.1% (control) to 28.35% and 34% at 500μg/ml respectively.

Conclusion:

The present study revealed that P. polyphylla collected from Meghalaya has an anti-proliferative capacity to inhibit the multiplication of the SAS cells. In comparison to PPRMCE extract, PPR-ECE was found to be more effective against SAS proliferation. Though the anticancer property of the herb is well documented, this investigation is the first report on the effects of P. polyphylla extracts against SAS oral cancer cells.

Integrative analysis of proteomic and metabonomics data for identification of pathways related to Rhizoma Paridis-induced hepatotoxicity

Clinical reports on hepatotoxicity that arise from Rhizoma Paridis have recently received widespread attention. Because the hepatotoxicity mechanism is little understood, this research strived to investigate the hepatotoxicity mechanism of Rhizoma Paridis extracts based on iTRAQ quantitative proteomics and metabonomics. The extraction solutions were administrated to rats for 7 days by gavage, and the hepatotoxicity was assessed through quantification of biochemical indexes and Oil red O staining. Additionally, the mechanism of hepatotoxicity was investigated by metabonomics based upon GC-MS and iTRAQ quantitative proteomics. The biochemical and histopathological analysis stood out that Rhizoma Paridis extract could induce liver injury, which was proved by the formation of fat droplets, the changes of mitochondrial structure, and biochemical parameters. The iTRAQ proteomics and metabonomics revealed that Rhizoma Paridis-induced hepatotoxicity was chiefly connected with the abnormal activity of mitochondrion function, which brought about oxidative stress injuries and inflammation, finally causing cell apoptosis. Collectively, we have provided previously uncharacterized hepatotoxic mechanism induced by Rhizoma Paridis and a reference to ensure its safe use in the future.

Similar hepatotoxicity response induced by Rhizoma Paridis in zebrafish larvae, cell and rat

Rhizoma Paridis, as a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), has been used in clinic for thousands of years. Recently, the hepatic toxicity was reported in some published articles while its hepatotoxicity mechanisms have not been well established. Therefore, the present study was performed to determine the effect of Rhizoma Paridis treatment on the lipid deposition and metabolism, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, and explore the underlying molecular mechanism through L02 cell, rat and zebrafish larvae. Rhizoma Paridis could diminish cell activity and cell proliferation, brought on cell apoptosis and elevated the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) compared with the control group, as evaluated in cell cultures. Rhizoma Paridis could result in the change of the liver structure and the liver function in the rat model and zebrafish larvae. Our results showed that Rhizoma Paridis could increase hepatic lipid accumulation, which was similar to the previous study and probably exerted toxic effect through intensive fatty acid lipogenesis, inhibition of fat degradation. Meanwhile, this experiment highlighted the importance of the oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, ER function, and the inflammation response in Rhizoma Paridis-induced disorder of hepatic lipid metabolism, which proposed a novel mechanism for interpretation of Rhizoma Paridis exposure inducing the disorder of lipid metabolism in vertebrates. Furthermore, the result of this experiment suggested that the toxicity response of zebrafish larvae was similar to the conventional model with a significant advantage.

Polyphyllin II inhibits liver cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion through downregulated cofilin activity and the AKT/NF-κB pathway

The morbidity and mortality of primary liver cancer is one of the highest amongst all cancers. Deficiency of effective treatment and characteristics of cancer metastasis are believed to be responsible for this situation, thus a great demand is required for new agent development. Polyphyllin II (PP2), an important steroidal saponin extracted from Rhizoma Paris, has emerged as a potential anti-cancer agent, but the effects of PP2 in liver cancers and its underlying mechanisms remain unexplored. In our study, we found that PP2 could remarkably suppress the proliferation of two liver cancer cell lines, HepG2 and BEL7402, resulting in significant cell death. Besides, low doses of PP2 have displayed properties that inhibit cellular motility and invasion of liver cancer cells. In addition, we have found that PP2-mediated cofilin activity suppression was implicated in the inhibition of liver cancer cell motility. Decreased expression of two major hydrolytic enzymes (MMP2/MMP9), through the AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway may also be also responsible for this process. Rescue experiments done with either non-phosphorylatable mutant cofilin-1 (S3A) transfection or an activator of the AKT pathway significantly reversed the inhibition effects of PP2 on liver cancer cells. Taken together, we report a potential agent for liver cancer treatment and reveal its underlying mechanisms.

Rhizoma Paridis total saponins alleviate H2O2‑induced oxidative stress injury by upregulating the Nrf2 pathway

Rhizoma Paridis total saponins (RPTS) is an active substance isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Rhizoma Paridis, which possesses multiple biological activities. The aim of the present study was to explore the roles and mechanisms of RPTS in oxidative stress injury of ARPE-19 human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and apoptosis were determined by Cell Counting kit-8 assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was performed to detect the expression of oxidative stress markers. Western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to determine the expression levels of related genes and proteins. The results revealed that RPTS enhanced cell viability and reduced H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress of ARPE-19 human retinal pigment epithelial cells. RPTS increased the MMP of ARPE-19 cells compared with in H₂O₂-treated ARPE-19 cells. In addition, RPTS suppressed ROS production and apoptosis of H₂O₂-treated ARPE-19 cells. Additionally, RPTS modulated the expression levels of apoptosis-associated proteins and the nuclear factor 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. In conclusion, RPTS alleviated H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress injury by upregulating the Nrf2 pathway. The potential effects of RPTS on protection against H₂O₂-induced apoptosis of ARPE-19 cells suggested that RPTS may be a potential therapeutic target for preventing age-related macular degeneration.

Comparative chloroplast genomes of Paris Sect. Marmorata: insights into repeat regions and evolutionary implications

Background

Species of Paris Sect. Marmorata are valuable medicinal plants to synthesize steroidal saponins with effective pharmacological therapy. However, the wild resources of the species are threatened by plundering exploitation before the molecular genetics studies uncover the genomes and evolutionary significance. Thus, the availability of complete chloroplast genome sequences of Sect. Marmorata is necessary and crucial to the understanding the plastome evolution of this section and facilitating future population genetics studies. Here, we determined chloroplast genomes of Sect. Marmorata, and conducted the whole chloroplast genome comparison.

Results

This study presented detailed sequences and structural variations of chloroplast genomes of Sect. Marmorata. Over 40 large repeats and approximately 130 simple sequence repeats as well as a group of genomic hotspots were detected. Inverted repeat contraction of this section was inferred via comparing the chloroplast genomes with the one of P. verticillata. Additionally, almost all the plastid protein coding genes were found to prefer ending with A/U. Mutation bias and selection pressure predominately shaped the codon bias of most genes. And most of the genes underwent purifying selection, whereas photosynthetic genes experienced a relatively relaxed purifying selection.

Conclusions

Repeat sequences and hotspot regions can be scanned to detect the intraspecific and interspecific variability, and selected to infer the phylogenetic relationships of Sect. Marmorata and other species in subgenus Daiswa. Mutation and natural selection were the main forces to drive the codon bias pattern of most plastid protein coding genes. Therefore, this study enhances the understanding about evolution of Sect. Marmorata from the chloroplast genome, and provide genomic insights into genetic analyses of Sect. Marmorata.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5281-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Two New Highly Oxygenated Spirostanol Saponins from Paris polyphylla var. stenophylla

Phytochemical investigation of the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. stenophylla led to the isolation of two new highly oxygenated spirostanol saponins, named paristenosides A (1) and B (2), together with seven known compounds. Their structures were established mainly on the base of NMR spectroscopic techniques and mass spectrometry, as well as chemical methods. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the two new saponins was tested. Two new highly oxygenated spirostanol saponins, paristenosides A (1) and B (2), were isolated from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. stenophylla. Their structures were established mainly based on NMR spectroscopic techniques and mass spectrometry, as well as chemical methods.

Anticancer Effects of Paris Saponins by Apoptosis and PI3K/AKT Pathway in Gefitinib-Resistant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Background

Paris saponins have been studied for their anticancer effects in various cancer types, but the mechanisms underlying the cytotoxic effects, especially in EGFR-TKI-resistant cells, are still unclear. We explored the potential mechanism of the antitumor effects of PSI, II, VI, VII in EGFR-TKI-resistant cells and attempted to develop PSI, II, VI, VII as a systemic treatment strategy for EGFR-TKI-resistant lung cancer.

Material/Methods

Growth inhibition was detected by MTT assay. The apoptosis assay was detected using annexin-V/PI and Hoechst staining. The level of PI3K, pAKT, Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3, and caspase-9 protein expression were detected using Western blot analysis.

Results

The results revealed that PSI, II, VI, VII inhibited the proliferation of PC-9-ZD cells. Furthermore, PSI, II, VI, VII induced significant cell apoptosis. The levels of PI3K, pAKT, Bcl-2 protein decreased, while the Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9 protein was increased by PSI, II, PSVI, PSVII treatment and resulted in increased sensitivity to gefitinib in PC-9-ZD cells.

Conclusions

The underlying mechanism of Paris saponins may be related to targeting the PI3K/AKT pathways to cause apoptosis. Our results suggest a therapeutic potential of Paris saponins in clinical settings for gefitinib-resistant NSCLC.

Recent Advance in Applications of Proteomics Technologies on Traditional Chinese Medicine Research

Proteomics technology, a major component of system biology, has gained comprehensive attention in the area of medical diagnosis, drug development, and mechanism research. On the holistic and systemic theory, proteomics has a convergence with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In this review, we discussed the applications of proteomic technologies in diseases-TCM syndrome combination researches. We also introduced the proteomic studies on the in vivo and in vitro effects and underlying mechanisms of TCM treatments using Chinese herbal medicine (CHM), Chinese herbal formula (CHF), and acupuncture. Furthermore, the combined studies of proteomics with other “-omics” technologies in TCM were also discussed. In summary, this report presents an overview of the recent advances in the application of proteomic technologies in TCM studies and sheds a light on the future global and further research on TCM.

Application of proteomics to determine the mechanism of action of traditional Chinese medicine remedies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rationale for using traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is based on the experience that has been gained from its wide use over thousands of years. However, the mechanisms of action of many TCM are still unclear. Proteomics, which mainly characterizes protein functions, protein-protein interactions, and protein modification in tissues or animals, can be used to investigate signaling pathway perturbations in cells or the whole body. Proteomics has improved the discovery process of effective TCM compounds, and has helped to elucidate their possible mechanisms of action. Therefore, a systematic review of the application of proteomics on TCM research is of great importance and necessity. This review strives to describe the literature on the application of proteomics to elucidate the mechanism of action of TCM on various diseases, and provide the essential discussion on the further utilization of proteomics data to accelerate TCM research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature survey was performed via electronic search on Pubmed with keywords 'Proteomics' and 'Traditional Chinese Medicine'. The papers written in English were acquired and analyzed in this review.

RESULTS

This review mainly summarizes the application of proteomics to investigate TCM remedies for neuronal disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and immunology-related disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Researchers have applied proteomics to study the mechanism of action of TCM and made substantial progresses. Further studies are required to determine the protein targets of the active compounds, analyze the mechanism of actions in patients, compare the clinical effects with western medicine.

Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in study of the pharmacokinetics of six steroidal saponins in rats

A rapid, simple and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for simultaneous determination of six main steroidal saponins in Paris polyphylla in rat plasma. Ginsenoside Rg3 was selected as the internal standard (IS). Plasma samples were pretreated with protein precipitation, and the separation was achieved on a reverse phase Agilent poroshell120 EC-C18 column using a gradient mobile phase system of acetonitrile-water containing 0.1% formic acid. The triple quadruple mass spectrometer was set in negative electrospray ionization mode and multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) was used for six steroidal saponins quantification. The precursors to produce ion transitions monitored for polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin VI, polyphyllin VII, dioscin, gracillin and IS were m/z 899.5>853.4, 1059.5>1013.5, 783.4>737.4, 1075.5>1029.5, 913.5>867.4, 929.5>883.4 and 819.5>783.4, respectively. The intra- and inter-day precisions (RSD%) were less than 13% and the average extraction recoveries ranged from 85% to 97.0% for each analyte. Six steroidal saponins were proved to be stable during sample storage, preparation and analytical procedures. The established method was employed for simultaneous quantification and successfully used for the first time for the pharmacokinetics evaluation of the six main compounds after intragastric administration of P. polyphylla extract in Sprague-Dawley rats.

Pharmacological evaluation of sedative-hypnotic activity and gastro-intestinal toxicity of Rhizoma Paridis saponins

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhizoma Paridis saponins (RPS) have been well studied for antimicrobial, anti-hemorrhagic, and anticancer effects. However, scientific information on RPS regarding the toxic and neuropharmacological effects is limited. In this study, the acute oral toxicity, sedative-hypnotic activity and gastro-intestinal toxicity of RPS were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The acute toxicity was carried out by administering single doses (800-5000 mg/kg) of RPS to adult mice. Rotarod test and sodium pentobarbital-induced hypnosis activity were used to evaluate the neuropharmacological effects on mice. Gastric emptying and intestinal transit were used to investigate the gastric-intestinal system effects.

RESULTS

A single oral administration of RPS dose-dependently caused adverse effects on the general behavior and mortality rate of mice. LD(50) value of oral acute toxicity was 2182.4 mg/kg, with 95% confidence limit of 1718.4-2807.8 mg/kg. In the test of sleeping mice, RPS acted in synergy with sodium pentobarbital at doses 250 and 500 mg/kg while motor coordination was not influenced within 120 min after treatment with RPS. Regarding the gastric-intestinal toxicity, RPS (100, 250, and 500 mg/kg) significantly inhibited gastric emptying but did not affect the intestinal transit.

CONCLUSIONS

RPS, which is a hypotoxic anticancer drug, possesses the sedative-hypnotic activity and gastric stimulus side effect.

Systems biology of meridians, acupoints, and chinese herbs in disease

Meridians, acupoints, and Chinese herbs are important components of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). They have been used for disease treatment and prevention and as alternative and complementary therapies. Systems biology integrates omics data, such as transcriptional, proteomic, and metabolomics data, in order to obtain a more global and complete picture of biological activity. To further understand the existence and functions of the three components above, we reviewed relevant research in the systems biology literature and found many recent studies that indicate the value of acupuncture and Chinese herbs. Acupuncture is useful in pain moderation and relieves various symptoms arising from acute spinal cord injury and acute ischemic stroke. Moreover, Chinese herbal extracts have been linked to wound repair, the alleviation of postmenopausal osteoporosis severity, and anti-tumor effects, among others. Different acupoints, variations in treatment duration, and herbal extracts can be used to alleviate various symptoms and conditions and to regulate biological pathways by altering gene and protein expression. Our paper demonstrates how systems biology has helped to establish a platform for investigating the efficacy of TCM in treating different diseases and improving treatment strategies.

Steroidal saponins from Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis

Eleven steroidal saponins, along with seven known steroidal saponins, were isolated from rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis. Their chemical structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analyses and acid hydrolysis. Two of these compounds contained a spirostanol saponin aglycone, hitherto unknown in Nature. The isolated compounds were tested for their cytotoxic effects on human nasopharyngeal carcinoma epithelial (CNE) cells, and seven compounds displayed more potent inhibitory effects than cisplatin (the positive control). One compound with diosgenin and tetrasaccharide moieties possessed the strongest inhibitory effect on CNE cells through the induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest.

Rhizoma Paridis ethanol extract selectively inhibits the proliferation of HUVECs comparing to Lovo cells and shows anti-angiogenesis effects in a mouse model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhizoma Paridis, a traditional Chinese Medicine, was identified to be cytotoxic to cancer cells. The present study was designed to investigate the potential anti-angiogenic and antitumor effect of the ethanol extract of Rhizoma Paridis (RPE) in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cytotoxic effect of RPE against human colon cancer Lovo cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was examined using MTT assay. We also tested the effect of RPE on tube formation, migration, apoptosis and cell cycle of HUVECs. Moreover, Lovo subcutaneous xenograft was applied to study the antitumor and anti-angiogenesis effect of RPE in vivo.

RESULTS

RPE exerted a higher inhibition effect on the proliferation of HUVECs than Lovo cells. The tube formation and cell migration were also significantly inhibited in the presence of RPE in a concentration-dependent manner though the significant inhibition effects were observed at the cytotoxic dose. RPE induced cell apoptosis and G0-G1 cell cycle arrest of HUVECs. In vivo, significant tumor growth inhibition was observed in human colon cancer xenografts established by Lovo cells, accompanying by a marked decrease in MVD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our current study exhibited that RPE has a selective cytotoxity against HUVECs comparing to Lovo cells and also demonstrated significant anti-angiogenic effect in vivo.

Simultaneous quantification of Polyphyllin D and Paris H, two potential antitumor active components in Paris polyphylla by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and the application to pharmacokinetics in rats

Polyphyllin D and Paris H are two potential antitumor active components in Paris polyphylla, one of the Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs). The present study details the development and validation of a rapid, sensitive and accurate LC-ESI-MS/MS method for the separation and simultaneous determination of Polyphyllin D and Paris H in rat plasma using Ginsenoside Rh(2) as the internal standard (IS). A simple protein precipitation method was used for the preparation of plasma sample. Chromatographic separation was successfully achieved on an Agilent Zorbax C(18) column using a step gradient program with the mobile phase of 10 mmol/L aqueous ammonium acetate and acetonitrile. Both analytes were detected by negative mode electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Selected reaction monitoring (SRM) was applied for all monitored analytes. This method demonstrated good linearity and did not show any endogenous interference. The lower limits of quantification (LLOQs) of Polyphyllin D and Paris H were both 1.0 ng/mL using 100 μL rat plasma. The average recoveries of Polyphyllin D and Paris H from rat plasma were both above 80%. The inter-day precisions (%RSD) of both analytes determined in five days were all below 15%. The developed and validated method has been successfully applied in the simultaneous quantification and pharmacokinetic studies of Polyphyllin D and Paris H in rats.

Comparative study on hemostatic, cytotoxic and hemolytic activities of different species of Paris L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rhizoma of Paris polyphylla var. yannanensis or P. polyphylla var. chinensis called Rhizoma Paridis as a traditional Chinese medicine has an effect of heat-clearing and detoxicating, detumescence and acesodyne in folk for a long time. The increasing application of Rhizoma Paridis resulted in the shortage of wildlife resources. Here, we compared the major activities of other species of genus Paris to find the replacement plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six species (P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, P. delavayi var. delavayi, P. fargesii var. Fargesii, P. bashanensis Wang et Tang, P. polyphyllar var. minora, and P. polyphylla var. pseudothibetical) were collected from three Provinces in China, and compared the hemostatic, cytotoxic and hemolytic activities by different assays.

RESULTS

For the hemostatic activity, all the plants except Paris fargesii var. Fargesii could significantly shorten the tail bleeding time and blood clotting time (P<0.05). For further mechanism study, they reduced the prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), but they had no significant effect on thrombin time (TT). P. fargesii var. Fargesii showed the similar cytotoxicity to P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis (IC(50): 18.21 and 15.73 μg/mL, respectively). HD(50) was used as the index of hemolytic activity. P. delavayi var. delavayi and P. bashanensis Wang et Tang were the last to have this activity as the values were 3.027 and 1.222 mg/mL.

CONCLUSIONS

The different species of genus Paris have different activities. Paris delavayi var. delavayi and Paris bashanensis Wang et Tang could be used as the resources of hemostatic drugs and P. fargesii var. Fargesii as the antitumor medicine.

Antioxidant and cytotoxic effects of hexane extract of Morinda pubescens leaves in human liver cancer cell line

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the antioxidant and cytotoxic effects of hexane extract of Morinda pubescens leaves and to find the primary bioactive compound responsible for antioxidant and cytotoxic activities.

METHODS

The individual compounds were isolated using column chromatography and were characterized by spectroscopic techniques. The antioxidant activity was evaluated for all individual isolated compounds by DPPH method using L-Ascorbic acid as standard and cytotoxicity was assessed for the extract and the hyoscyamine by MTT assay, caspase test and RT-PCR study.

RESULTS

The antioxidant activity of the isolated compounds and the extract increased as the concentration increased. One of the isolated compound hyoscyamine showed the high antioxidant activity. The extract and the hyoscyamine dose-dependently decreased the cell viability in HepG2 cells. Hyoscyamine induced caspase-3 mediated apoptosis. Up regulation of p53 gene expression provides cue for apoptotic activity of hyoscyamine.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that hexane extract possessed potent antioxidant and cytotoxic activity and hyoscyamine is the principal bioactive compound in hexane extract.

Proteomic studies on protective effects of salvianolic acids, notoginsengnosides and combination of salvianolic acids and notoginsengnosides against cardiac ischemic-reperfusion injury

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia miltiorrhiza and Panax notoginseng are popularly used traditional Chinese medicine for cardiovascular disorders and they are often used in the form of combination. However, mechanisms of their cardioprotective effects were still not clear. In the present study, the protective effects of salvianolic acids (SA), notoginsengnosides (NG) and combination of SA and NG (CSN) against rat cardiac ischemia-reperfusion injury were checked and the protein expression profiles of heart tissues were examined to search their possible protein targets.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cardioprotective effects of SA, NG and CSN were checked in a rat model of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) by temporarily occluding coronary artery for 20 min followed by reperfusion. Rats were grouped into sham-operation group, IR group, IR+SA group, IR+NG group and IR+CSN group. The plasma creatine kinase (CK) activities were measured using commercial kit and the percentages of infarcted area in total ventricle tissue were calculated after nitroblue-tetrazolium (N-BT) staining of heart tissue slices. Two-dimensional protein electrophoresis (2-DE) was used to check the protein expression profiles of heart tissues. Then, proteins differentially expressed between IR group and sham-operation group were identified using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS/MS). The regulative effects of SA, NG and CSN on these IR-related proteins were analyzed.

RESULTS

Treatments including SA, NG and CSN all showed cardioprotective effects against ischemia-reperfusion injury and CSN exhibited to be the best. Eighteen proteins involved in IR injury were found. These proteins are involved in pathways including energy metabolism, lipid metabolism, muscle contraction, heat shock stress, cell survival and proliferation. The regulation of these proteins by SA, NG or CSN suggested possible protein targets in their cardioprotective effects.

CONCLUSIONS

SA and NG showed both similarity and difference in their protein targets involved in cardioprotective effects. The capability of CSN to regulate both protein targets of SA and NG might be the basis of CSN to show cardioprotective effects better than that of SA or NG.

A Study of the Wound Healing Mechanism of a Traditional Chinese Medicine, Angelica sinensis, Using a Proteomic Approach

Angelica sinensis (AS) is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine that has been formulated clinically to treat various form of skin trauma and to help wound healing. However, the mechanism by which it works remains a mystery. In this study we have established a new platform to evaluate the pharmacological effects of total AS herbal extracts as well as its major active component, ferulic acid (FA), using proteomic and biochemical analysis. Cytotoxic and proliferation-promoting concentrations of AS ethanol extracts (AS extract) and FA were tested, and then the cell extracts were subject to 2D PAGE analysis. We found 51 differentially expressed protein spots, and these were identified by mass spectrometry. Furthermore, biomolecular assays, involving collagen secretion, migration, and ROS measurements, gave results that are consistent with the proteomic analysis. In this work, we have demonstrated a whole range of pharmacological effects associated with Angelica sinensis that might be beneficial when developing a wound healing pharmaceutical formulation for the herbal medicine.

Application of proteomics in the mechanistic study of traditional Chinese medicine

Systems biology is considered to be the possible technology that could bring breakthroughs in the study of TCM (traditional Chinese medicine). Proteomics, as one of the major components of systems biology, has been used in the mechanistic study of TCM, providing some interesting results. In the present paper, we review the current application of proteomics in the mechanistic study of TCM. Proteomics technologies and strategies that might be used in the future to improve study of TCM are also discussed.

Effect of Turkish propolis extracts on proteome of prostate cancer cell line

Background

Propolis is a natural, resinous hive product that has several pharmacological activities. Its composition varies depending on the vegetation, climate, season and environmental conditions of the area from where it was collected. Surface enhanced laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF MS) is a proteomic approach which has been used in cancer proteomics studies. Prostate cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers in men. It has shown that nutritional supplements rich in polyphenolic compounds such as propolis play a significant role in prostate cancer chemoprevention. The aim of this study is to evaluate if protein expression profile in PC-3 prostate cancer cell lines could be differentiated when incubated with dimethyl sulfoxide and water extracts of Turkish propolis.

Results

The antioxidant potentials of dimethyl sulfoxide and water extracts of propolis were found in correlation with the amount of total phenolic compounds of them. Dimethyl sulfoxide and water extracts of propolis of 20 μg/mL reduced the cell viability to 24.5% and 17.7%, respectively. Statistically significant discriminatory peaks between control PC-3 cells and dimethyl sulfoxide extract of propolis-treated PC-3 cells were found to be the proteomic features at m/z 5143, 8703, 12661, 20184 and 32794, detected by CM10 ProteinChip, and the peak at m/z 3772, detected by Q10 ProteinChip. Between control PC-3 cells and water extract of propolis-treated PC-3 cells, statistically significant discriminatory peaks were found to be the proteomic features at m/z 15846, 16052 and 24658, detected by CM10 ProteinChip and the peaks at m/z 10348, 10899 and 11603, detected by Q10 ProteinChip.

Conclusions

It was concluded that dimethyl sulfoxide and water extracts of Turkish propolis may have anti-proliferative activity through differentiating protein expression profile in PC-3 prostate cancer cell lines along with their antioxidant capacity.

The herb medicine formula "chong lou fu fang" increases the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents and down-regulates the expression of chemotherapeutic agent resistance-related genes in human gastric cancer cells in vitro

The herb medicine formula “Chong Lou Fu Fang” (CLFF) has efficacy in inhibiting the proliferation of human gastric cancer in vitro and in vivo. To explore the potentially useful combination of CLFF with chemotherapeutic agents commonly used in gastric cancer therapy, we assess the interaction between CLFF and these chemotherapeutic agents in both SGC-7901 cell lines and BGC-823 cell lines using a median effect analysis and apoptosis analysis, and we also investigate the influence of CLFF on chemotherapeutic agent-associated gene expression. The synergistic analysis indicated that CLFF had a synergistic effect on the cytotoxicity of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in a relative broad dose inhibition range (20–95% fraction affected in SGC-7901cell lines and 5–65% fraction affected in BGC-823 cell lines), while the synergistic interaction between CLFF and oxaliplatin or docetaxel only existed in a low dose inhibition range (≤50% fraction affected in both cell lines). Combination of CLFF and chemotherapeutic agents could also induce apoptosis in a synergistic manner. After 24 h, CLFF alone or CLFF combination with chemotherapeutic agents could significantly suppress the levels of expression of chemotherapeutic agent resistance related genes in gastric cancer cells. Our findings indicate that there are useful synergistic interactions between CLFF and chemotherapeutic agents in gastric cancer cells, and the possible mechanisms might be partially due to the down-regulation of chemotherapeutic agent resistance related genes and the synergistic apoptotic effect.

Calpain-catalyzed proteolysis of human dUTPase specifically removes the nuclear localization signal peptide

Background

Calpain proteases drive intracellular signal transduction via specific proteolysis of multiple substrates upon Ca²⁺-induced activation. Recently, dUTPase, an enzyme essential to maintain genomic integrity, was identified as a physiological calpain substrate in Drosophila cells. Here we investigate the potential structural/functional significance of calpain-activated proteolysis of human dUTPase.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Limited proteolysis of human dUTPase by mammalian m-calpain was investigated in the presence and absence of cognate ligands of either calpain or dUTPase. Significant proteolysis was observed only in the presence of Ca(II) ions, inducing calpain action. The presence or absence of the dUTP-analogue α,β-imido-dUTP did not show any effect on Ca²⁺-calpain-induced cleavage of human dUTPase. The catalytic rate constant of dUTPase was unaffected by calpain cleavage. Gel electrophoretic analysis showed that Ca²⁺-calpain-induced cleavage of human dUTPase resulted in several distinctly observable dUTPase fragments. Mass spectrometric identification of the calpain-cleaved fragments identified three calpain cleavage sites (between residues ⁴SE⁵; ⁷TP⁸; and ³¹LS³²). The cleavage between the ³¹LS³² peptide bond specifically removes the flexible N-terminal nuclear localization signal, indispensable for cognate localization.

Conclusions/Significance

Results argue for a mechanism where Ca²⁺-calpain may regulate nuclear availability and degradation of dUTPase.

Assessment of mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of Solanum paniculatum L. extracts using in vivo micronucleus test in mice

Solanum paniculatum L. is a plant species widespread throughout tropical America, especially in the Brazilian Savanna region. It is used in Brazil for culinary purposes and in folk medicine to treat liver and gastric dysfunctions, as well as hangovers. Because of the wide use of this plant as a therapeutic resource and food, the present study aimed at evaluating the mutagenic and cytotoxic effects of S. paniculatum ethanolic leaf and fruit extracts using the mouse bone marrow micronucleus test. Our results indicate that neither S. paniculatum ethanolic leaf extract nor its ethanolic fruit extract exhibited mutagenic effect in mice bone marrow; however, at higher doses, both extracts presented cytotoxic activity.

Chemical study and medical application of saponins as anti-cancer agents

Saponins are a group of naturally occurring plant glycosides, characterized by their strong foam-forming properties in aqueous solution. The presence of saponins has been reported in more than 100 families of plants out of which at least 150 kinds of natural saponins have been found to possess significant anti-cancer properties. There are more than 11 distinguished classes of saponins including dammaranes, tirucallanes, lupanes, hopanes, oleananes, taraxasteranes, ursanes, cycloartanes, lanostanes, cucurbitanes and steroids. Due to the great variability of their structures, saponins always display anti-tumorigenic effects through varieties of antitumor pathways. In addition, there are a large amount of saponins that still either remain to be trapped or studied in details by the medicinal chemists. This article reviews many such structures and their related chemistry along with the recent advances in understanding mechanism of action and structure-function relationships of saponins at the molecular and cellular levels. These aglycones have been described and their classification and distribution have been listed in the review. Some special saponins with strong antitumor effects have also been exhibited. Ginsenosides, belonging to dammaranes, have been found beneficial targeted on inhibition of tumor angiogenesis by suppressing its inducer in the endothelial cells of blood vessels, and then on prevention of adhering, invasion, and metastasis of tumor cells. Dioscin, one of the steroidal saponins, and its aglycone diosgenin also have been extensively studied on its antitumor effect by cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Other important molecules discussed include oleanane saponins such as avicins, platycodons, saikosaponins, and soysaponins along with tubeimosides.