Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages by aqueous extract of Clinopodium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)

Exploring nature's hidden treasure: Unraveling the untapped phytochemical and pharmacological potentials of Clinopodium vulgare L. - A hidden gem in the Lamiaceae family

Folk medicine, rooted in historical practice, has long been used for medicinal purposes, emphasizing the need to ensure the safety, quality, and efficacy of herbal medicines. This imperative has grown over time, prompting collaborative efforts to document historical records and preserve invaluable knowledge of medicinal plants. The Lamiaceae (Labiatae) family, renowned for its rich assortment of medicinal plants characterized by high concentrations of volatile oils, stands out in this regard. This review focuses on Clinopodium vulgare (C. vulgare) L., commonly known as wild basil or basil thyme, a significant species within the Lamiaceae family found across diverse global regions. C. vulgare boasts a storied history of application in treating various ailments, such as gastric ulcers, diabetes, and inflammation, dating back to ancient times. Rigorous research has substantiated its pharmacological properties, revealing its antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antihypertensive, and enzyme-inhibitory effects. This comprehensive review provides an insightful overview of the Lamiaceae family, elucidates the extraction methods employed to obtain medicinal compounds, explores the phytoconstituents present in C. vulgare, and systematically details its diverse pharmacological properties. Additionally, the review delves into considerations of toxicity. By synthesizing this wealth of information, this study opens avenues for the potential therapeutic applications of C. vulgare. The practical value of this research lies in its contribution to the understanding of medicinal plants, mainly focusing on the pharmacological potential of C. vulgare. This exploration enriches our knowledge of traditional medicine and paves the way for innovative therapeutic approaches, offering promising prospects for future drug development. As the demand for natural remedies continues to increase, this work provides a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and stakeholders in herbal medicine and pharmacology.

Antitumor and Antioxidant Activities of In Vitro Cultivated and Wild-Growing Clinopodium vulgare L. Plants

Clinopodium vulgare L. is a valuable medicinal plant used for its anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and wound-healing properties. The present study describes an efficient protocol for the micropropagation of C. vulgare and compares, for the first time, the chemical content and composition and antitumor and antioxidant activities of extracts from in vitro cultivated and wild-growing plants. The best nutrient medium was found to be Murashige and Skoog (MS) supplemented with 1 mg/L BAP and 0.1 IBA mg/L, yielding on average 6.9 shoots per nodal segment. Flower aqueous extracts from in vitro plants had higher total polyphenol content (29,927.6 ± 592.1 mg/100 g vs. 27,292.8 ± 85.3 mg/100 g) and ORAC antioxidant activity (7281.3 ± 82.9 µmol TE/g vs. 7246.3 ± 62.4 µmol TE/g) compared to the flowers of wild plants. HPLC detected qualitative and quantitative differences in phenolic constituents between the in vitro cultivated and wild-growing plants' extracts. Rosmarinic acid was the major phenolic constituent, being accumulated mainly in leaves, while neochlorogenic acid was a major compound in the flowers of cultivated plants. Catechin was found only in cultivated plants, but not in wild plants or cultivated plants' stems. Aqueous extracts of both cultivated and wild plants showed significant in vitro antitumor activity against human HeLa (cervical adenocarcinoma), HT-29 (colorectal adenocarcinoma) and MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines. The best cytotoxic activity against most of the cancer cell lines, combined with the least detrimental effects on a non-tumor human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT), was shown by the leaf (250 µg/mL) and flower (500 µg/mL) extracts of cultivated plants, making cultivated plants a valuable source of bioactive compounds and a suitable candidate for anticancer therapy.

Exploring phytochemical constituents of Achillea arabica Kotschy. ethanolic flower extract by LC-MS/MS and its possible antioxidant and antidiabetic effects in diabetic rats

The aim of this study was to reveal the antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of ethanolic lyophilized extract of Achillea arabica flower extract against streptozotosine (STZ)-induced in diabetic rats and to determine its phytochemical content by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). After toxicity test, 35 female rats were divided into five groups. Control, diabetes mellitus (DM), A.arabica (400 mg/kg) extract, DM + A. arabica (400 mg/kg) extract and DM + Glibenclamide (2 mg/kg). It was determined that while diabetic rats treated A.arabica plant extract significantly decreased blood glucose level, serum glucose, HbA1c, liver and kidney damage biomarker levels, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content compared to the DM group, it caused fluctuations in antioxidant enzyme levels. According to LC-MS/MS results of A. arabica flower extract, quinic acid (2439.9 μg/g), cyranoside (858.4 μg/g), chlorogenic acid (698.7 μg/g), and cosmosiin (347.8 μg/g) were determined as major compounds, respectively. In addition, two new compounds were determined in this extract according to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Mass analyses and these compounds were named edremitine and achillosine, respectively. Thus, A.arabica flower extract has possible therapeutic effects to prevent high blood glucose level and oxidative stress caused by DM in liver and kidney via its high phenolic content.

Anti-inflammatory abietanes diterpenes and triterpenoids isolated from Clinopodium polycephalum

Two previously undescribed diterpenes (1 and 2), as well as one curious triterpenoid were isolated from Clinopodium polycephalum, a medicinal plant distributed in southwestern and eastern China. Their structures were elucidated using MS analyses, UV spectrum, and extensive 2D-homo and heteronuclear NMR data interpretations. Among them, 1 had an unusual skeletal characteristic produced by a rare methyl migration pathway. All monomer compounds exhibited inhibitory effects on NO production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells without affecting cell viabilities, which were comparable to that of positive control.

Polyphenol Composition, Anticholinesterase and Antioxidant Potential of the Extracts of Clinopodium vulgare L

Clinopidium vulgare L. (wild basil, Lamiaceae) is a well-known medicinal plant used in the traditional medicine in many countries. Medicinal plants present potential sources of bioactive compounds. Many of them are rich in polyphenol compounds that show biological potential in terms of protecting biological molecules from oxidation and in inhibition of cholinesterase enzymes, which may be significant in the treatment of diseases related to oxidative stress. In this work, we examined the chemical composition of Clinopodium vulgare L. hot water and methanol extract using spectroscopic and HPLC/DAD techniques. Using DPPH and FRAP methods the antioxidant activity was analyzed. The ability to protect proteins and lipids from oxidation was also determined as well as the ability of extracts to inhibit cholinesterase enzymes using Ellman's method. Analyzed extracts were rich in polyphenol compounds. Among 16 identified and quantified phenolic compounds dominant were: rosmarinic (26.63 and 34.21 mg/g) and ellagic acid (23.11 and 29.31 mg/g) of hot water and methanol extract, respectively. They show good antioxidant activity and good potential in protecting lipids from oxidation. The ability of extracts to inhibit enzyme acetylcholinesterase was weak, while inhibition of the butyrylcholinesterase was missing. Extracts show prooxidant activity in terms of protecting proteins from oxidation.

Antioxidant and enzyme-inhibiting activity of lyophilized extract from Clinopodium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)

Clinopodium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae) was used in the traditional Bulgarian medicine for treatment of wounds, diabetes and gastric ulcers. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of the extract (CVE) and fractions from C. vulgare (CV) using DPPH, ABTS and FRAP methods. Enzyme inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase, α-glucosidase and α-amylase was also investigated. Rosmarinic acid was used as a positive control. The fraction CV3 demonstrated the highest radical scavenging activity with IC50 values of 0.02 mg/ml (DPPH) and 0.0002 mg/ml (ABTS), as well as the strongest ferric reducing potential (FRAP) of 0.89 mM TE/mg dw. The crude aqueous-methanol extract of C. vulgare also showed high activity with IC50 values of 0.05 mg/ml (DPPH), 0.04 mg/ml (ABTS) and 0.89 mM TE/mg dw (FRAP). Moreover, CV3 demonstrated moderate α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory potential.

Clinopodium tomentosum (Kunth) Govaerts Leaf Extract Influences in vitro Cell Proliferation and Angiogenesis on Primary Cultures of Porcine Aortic Endothelial Cells

Clinopodium tomentosum (Kunth) Govaerts is an endemic species in Ecuador, where it is used as an anti-inflammatory plant to treat respiratory and digestive affections. In this work, effects of a Clinopodium tomentosum ethanolic extract (CTEE), prepared from aerial parts of the plant, were investigated on vascular endothelium functions. In particularly, angiogenesis activity was evaluated, using primary cultures of porcine aortic endothelial cells (pAECs). Cells were cultured for 24 h in the presence of CTEE different concentrations (10, 25, 50, and 100 μg/ml); no viability alterations were found in the 10-50 μg/ml range, while a slight, but significant, proliferative effect was observed at the highest dose. In addition, treatment with CTEE was able to rescue LPS-induced injury in terms of cell viability. The CTEE ability to affect angiogenesis was evaluated by scratch test analysis and by an in vitro capillary-like network assay. Treatment with 25-50 μg/ml of extract caused a significant increase in pAEC's migration and tube formation capabilities compared to untreated cells, as results from the increased master junctions' number. On the other hand, CTEE at 100 μg/ml did not induce the same effects. Quantitative PCR data demonstrated that FLK-1 mRNA expression significantly increased at a CTEE dose of 25 μg/ml. The CTEE phytochemical composition was assessed through HPLC-DAD; rosmarinic acid among phenolic acids and hesperidin among flavonoids were found as major phenolic components. Total phenolic content and total flavonoid content assays showed that flavonoids are the most abundant class of polyphenols. The CTEE antioxidant activity was also showed by means of the DPPH and ORAC assays. Results indicate that CTEE possesses an angiogenic capacity in a dose-dependent manner; this represents an initial step in elucidating the mechanism of the therapeutic use of the plant.

Clinopodium vulgare L. (wild basil) extract and its active constituents modulate cyclooxygenase-2 expression in neutrophils

Clinopodium vulgare L. (wild basil) has a wide range of ethnopharmacological applications and accumulates a broad spectrum of phenolic compounds, recognized for their anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. The triggered cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression is creating an immunosuppressive microenvironment in the inflamed tissue and considered to be the main cause of failure of even new anticancer-/immune-therapies. Nowadays, selective and novel plant-derived COX-2 inhibitors with safe profile are subject of profound research interest. This study aimed to analyze the metabolic profile of C. vulgare and search for phenolic molecules with potential biological properties. By application of ¹H and 2D-NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) profiling, caffeic, chlorogenic acids and catechin were identified along with a bunch of primary and secondary metabolites. Further, the biological effect of C. vulgare extract (CVE) and its constituents on zymosan-induced COX-2 expression and apoptosis of murine neutrophils have been studied. The CVE, caffeic and chlorogenic acids inhibited zymosan-induced COX-2 expression in bone marrow neutrophils, in vitro and in vivo activated. The obtained data indicate that CVE may have a good potential to manipulate neutrophil functions, however, its action may depend on the cellular state, the inflammatory milieu and the relative content of caffeic and chlorogenic acid in the extract.

Anti-inflammatory effects of a traditional Korean medicine: Ojayeonjonghwan

OBJECTIVE

To study the anti-inflammatory properties of OJ.

CONTEXT

Ojayeonjonghwan (OJ) is a traditional Korean prescription, which has been widely used for the treatment of prostatitis. However, no scientific study has been performed of the anti-inflammatory effects of OJ.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Peritoneal macrophages were isolated 3-4 days after injecting a C57BL/6J mouse with thioglycollate. They were then treated with OJ water extract (0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/mL) for 1 h and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for different times. Nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and proinflammatory cytokine levels were determined by NO assay, Western blotting, RT-PCR and ELISA.

RESULTS

NO generation and iNOS induction were increased in the LPS-activated mouse peritoneal macrophages. However, NO generation and iNOS induction by LPS were suppressed by treatment with OJ for the first time. The IC₅₀ value of OJ with respect to NO production was 0.09 mg/mL. OJ did not influence LPS-stimulated COX-2 induction, but did significantly decrease LPS-stimulated secretions and mRNA expressions of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β. Inhibition rates of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β at an OJ concentration of 1 mg/mL were 77%, 88%, and 50%, respectively. OJ also suppressed the LPS-induced nuclear translocation of NF-κB. High-performance liquid chromatography showed schizandrin and gomisin A are major components of OJ.

CONCLUSIONS

OJ reduces inflammatory response, and this probably explains its positive impact on the prostatitis associated inflammation.

Influence of Dimerization of Apocynin on Its Effects in Experimental Colitis

Apocynin has been widely used as an inhibitor of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NADPH-oxidase) system and shows promise as an anti-inflammatory drug. Diapocynin, the dimeric product generated by the oxidation of apocynin in the presence of myeloperoxidase (MPO), is supposed to be its active form. In this study, diapocynin has been chemically synthesized and its activity on several inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and its anti-inflammatory effect on ulcerative colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in mice analyzed. We found that diapocynin showed higher inhibitory activity than apocynin. The dimer reduced ROS production, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β levels and inhibited iNOS and COX-2 expression as well as decreased NO and PGE₂ production induced in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The anti-inflammatory molecular mechanism of diapocynin was associated with the suppression of NF-κB activation. However, these results were not paralleled by in vivo studies. Oral administration of apocynin and diapocynin (100 mg/kg) three times a week exhibited similar protections against experimental inflammatory bowel disease induced by DSS; therefore, apocynin should not be considered a prodrug. However, it should be taken into account that the dimer is more potent because its dose (0.3 mmol/kg) is half that of apocynin.

3β-Angeloyloxy-8β,10β-dihydroxyeremophila-7(11)-en-12,8α-lactone Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Nitric Oxide Production in RAW264.7 Cells

Farfugium japonicum (L.) KITAM, named "Lian-Peng-Cao" in China, has been traditionally used in Chinese folk medicine to treat sore throat, cold and cough due to its anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the anti-inflammatory action of 3β-angeloyloxy-8β,10β-dihydroxyeremophila-7(11)-en-12,8α-lactone (FJ1) isolated from Farfugium japonicum and its molecular mechanism in RAW264.7 cells were investigated. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that FJ1 with or without 3 µg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) had no significant cytotoxicity in RAW264.7 cells. The production of nitric oxide (NO) was identified with a Griess reagent kit. The mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was detected by flow cytometry analysis. Western blot was used to examine the protein expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB)/p65, inhibitor of kappa B (IκB)-α, phosphorylated IκB-α (p-IκB-α), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) molecules, iNOS, and TNF-α. We discovered that FJ1 possesses anti-inflammatory effects that inhibit the release of LPS-stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokines, including NO and ROS. The molecular mechanism of FJ1-mediated anti-inflammation is associated with decreasing phosphorylation of MAPK molecules, including extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), p38 MAPK, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), FJ1 also reverses IκB degradation and attenuates the mRNA and protein expression of NF-κB-related downstream inducible enzymes and cytokines, such as iNOS, TNF-α in RAW264.7 cells. The results suggest that FJ1 has anti-inflammatory properties, which indicates that F. japonicum can be utilized to treat inflammatory diseases. The potential mechanism is associated with the NF-κB and MAPK activation pathways in LPS-stimulated macrophages.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase-mediated anti-inflammatory effects of Garcinia subelliptica in macrophages

Garcinia plants have been traditionally used to treat inflammatory diseases, such as skin infections and pain, in many regions including South‑East Asia. Garcinia subelliptica, a plant of the Garcinia species widely distributed from Japan to Thailand, has been reported to contain components similar to other Garcinia plants that exhibit anti‑inflammatory effects. The present study aimed to explore the anti‑inflammatory effects of ethanol extracts of Garcinia subelliptica (EGS) in macrophages, as there are no previous systemic studies that have investigated the effects of Garcinia subelliptica on inflammation. Non‑cytotoxic concentrations of EGS (≤200 µg/ml) were observed to reduce nitric oxide production by modulating iNOS expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The expression of cyclooxygenase‑2, the enzyme responsible for the production of prostaglandin E2, was notably reduced by EGS. EGS treatment inhibited the production of pro‑inflammatory cytokines, including IL‑6 and IL‑1β, however, not TNF‑α. Reduced production of inflammatory mediators by EGS was followed by reduced phosphorylation of c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase (JNK) however, not of other mitogen‑activated protein kinases and nuclear factor‑κB. These results indicate that EGS selectively inhibits the excessive production of inflammatory mediators in LPS‑stimulated murine macrophages by reducing the activation of JNK, suggesting that EGS is a candidate for modulating severe inflammation.

Antiinflammatory and Analgesic Activities of Ethanol Extract and Isolated Compounds from Millettia pulchra

The plant Millettia pulchra was commonly used in folk medicine for the management of inflammation. However, there was no scientific rationale for these effects and the mechanism of action remained incompletely understood. The present study was designed to investigate the antiinflammatory and analgesic activities of an ethanol extract of the stem of M. pulchra (EMP) in vivo, and to explore the antiinflammatory activity of compounds isolated from EMP in vitro. We found that EMP reduced xylene-induced ear edema and relieved both acetic acid-induced pain and pain in the hot plate test. Additionally, a significant decrease in nitric oxide (NO) production was observed in cells treated with the isolated compounds. Lanceolatin B, which showed the greatest inhibition of NO synthesis among the compounds tested, also reduced levels of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), and phosphorylation inhibitory kappa B alpha (p-IκBα) in a dose-dependent manner. These findings provide convincing evidence that EMP and the individual isolated compounds possess significant antiinflammatory and analgesic activities.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Crataeva nurvala Buch. Ham. are mediated via inactivation of ERK but not NF-κB

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Crataeva nurvala Buch. Ham. is an important medicinal plant in India, and its extracts and components were used to treat various inflammatory diseases, such as urinary tract infection, rheumatoid arthritis, and colitis. However, no systemic studies about anti-inflammatory effects of Crataeva nurvala Buch. Ham. and its underlying mechanisms of action have been reported. This study aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory effects of ethanol extracts of Crataeva nurvala Buch. Ham. (ECN).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The non-cytotoxic and maximal effective concentration of ECN was determined by measuring the formation of formazan from water-soluble tetrazolium salt in living cells. The inhibitory effect of ECN on nitric oxide (NO) synthesis was measured using Griess reagent, and Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to measure secreted tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 protein levels. Furthermore, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blotting analysis were used to assess the mRNA and protein expression of each inflammatory mediator or relating signaling protein, respectively.

RESULTS

A non-cytotoxic concentration of ECN (≤200 μg/ml) significantly reduced the production of NO and IL-6, but not TNF-α, in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Decreased production of NO by ECN was correlated with reduced expression of iNOS at the mRNA and protein levels. However, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expressions at mRNA and protein level were not regulated by ECN. The mRNA expression of IL-6 and IL-1β, but not TNF-α, was also inhibited by ECN treatment in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Reduced production of inflammatory mediators by ECN was followed by decreased activity of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), especially extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), but not nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that ECN inhibits LPS-induced inflammatory responses via negative regulation of ERK in murine macrophages, suggesting that ECN is a candidate for alleviating severe inflammation.

Methanol extracts of Euphorbia cooperi inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators by inhibiting the activation of c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase and p38 in murine macrophages

Numerous Euphorbiaceae plants have been used for the treatment of diseases, including liver diseases, asthma and rheumatism. The present study evaluated the effect of methanol extracts from Euphorbia cooperi (MEC), a member of the Euphorbiaceae plant family, on the production of inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)‑6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α, nitric oxide (NO) as well as the activation of mitogen‑activated protein kinase and nuclear factor (NF)‑κB signaling. Non‑cytotoxic concentrations of MEC significantly reduced the production of NO and IL‑6, but not TNF‑α, in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The decreased production of NO by MEC was due to alleviated expression of inducible NO synthase. Reporter assays with cells treated with MEC demonstrated reduced activator protein‑1 (AP-1) activity, while NF‑κB activity was not reduced. Furthermore, the phosphorylation levels of c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 were suppressed by MEC while phosphorylation levels of inhibitor of κB were not reduced by MEC, suggesting that MEC‑mediated inactivation of JNK and p38 is the underlying regulatory mechanism for inflammatory mediators in LPS‑stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Lithium chloride suppresses LPS-mediated matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in macrophages through phosphorylation of GSK-3β

Abnormal degradation of matrix components due to dysregulated expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in macrophages has been linked to progression of acute cerebral ischemia and atherosclerosis. We report that lithium chloride (LiCl) or CHIR99021, inhibitors of Wnt signaling pathway, enhance phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta and suppress lipopolysaccharide-mediated upregulation of MMP-9 expression in murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Suppression of MMP-9 expression by LiCl or CHIR99021 did not result after inhibition of kinases involved in NFκB or AP-1 family proteins, but from changes in the activity of histone deacetylases. Beneficial effects on atherosclerosis or cerebral ischemia in animal studies caused by LiCl may be in part explained by the suppression of MMP-9 gene expression.

Inhibition of nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by stem bark of Ulmus pumila L

This study was designed to isolate and identify a potent inhibitory compound against nitric oxide (NO) production from the stem bark of Ulmus pumila L. Ethyl acetate fraction of hot water extract registered a higher level of total phenolics (756.93 mg GAE/g) and also showed strong DPPH (IC50 at 5.6 μg/mL) and ABTS (TEAC value 0.9703) radical scavenging activities than other fractions. Crude extract and its fractions significantly decreased nitrite accumulation in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells indicating that they potentially inhibited the NO production in a concentration dependent manner. Based on higher inhibitory activity, the ethyl acetate fraction was subjected to Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography and yielded seven fractions and all these fractions registered appreciable levels of inhibitory activity on NO production. The most effective fraction F1 was further purified and subjected to (1)H, (13)C-NMR and mass spectrometry analysis and the compound was identified as icariside E4. The results suggest that the U. pumila extract and the isolated compound icariside E4 effectively inhibited the NO production and may be useful in preventing inflammatory diseases mediated by excessive production of NO.

Functional roles of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses

Inflammation is a natural host defensive process that is largely regulated by macrophages during the innate immune response. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are proline-directed serine and threonine protein kinases that regulate many physiological and pathophysiological cell responses. p38 MAPKs are key MAPKs involved in the production of inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). p38 MAPK signaling plays an essential role in regulating cellular processes, especially inflammation. In this paper, we summarize the characteristics of p38 signaling in macrophage-mediated inflammation. In addition, we discuss the potential of using inhibitors targeting p38 expression in macrophages to treat inflammatory diseases.

Multitargeted protective effect of Abacopteris penangiana against carrageenan-induced chronic prostatitis in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Abacopteris penangiana (Hook.) Ching (AP) is traditionally used in Chinese medicine to promote blood circulation, remove blood stasis and dampness and for the treatment of edema and inflammation. In order to further support and develop the traditional use of Abacopteris penangiana as Chinese folk medicine, the aim of this study is to investigate the protective effect of the total flavanol glycosides (TFA) from AP and its acid hydrolysate (AHT) on chronic non-bacterial prostatitis (CNP) by measuring the levels of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

First, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of AHT and TFA were investigated. Then the experimental chronic non-bacterial prostatitis was induced by carrageenan. The prostate index (PI) and prostate specific antigen (PSA) were determined. The activities of AHT and TFA on inhibiting free radicals and oxidative stress were investigated. Subsequently, the degree of chronic inflammatory cell infiltrates, acinar changes and interstitial fibrosis were evaluated by histopathological examination. In addition, the relative inflammatory factors, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PEG2), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) were measured. Finally, the prostatic expression of nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κB) was determined by immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

The whole results showed that AHT and TFA had strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. In CNP model, AHT and TFA successfully decreased PI and PSA. The activities of antioxidant enzymes in AHT or TFA group were enhanced. Additionally, a morphometric analysis of the prostate gland of AHT or TFA treated rats demonstrated a significant reduction in chronic inflammatory cell infiltrates and interstitial fibrosis compared to model group. The reduced values of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, PEG2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and nitric oxide (NO) were observed both in AHT and TFA treated groups. Moreover, the levels of TGF-β1 and CTGF in AHT and TFA treated groups were significantly decreased along with the alleviation of the inflammatory state of the prostate gland. Besides, the prostatic expression of NF-κB was inhibited.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that AHT and TFA have anti-prostatitis properties via inhibiting oxidative stress, NF-κB dependent pro-inflammatory cytokines, fibrosis-related factors and antinociceptive activity. Hence, AP represents a potential herb for the treatment of prostatitis.

Yuwen02f1 suppresses LPS-induced endotoxemia and adjuvant-induced arthritis primarily through blockade of ROS formation, NFkB and MAPK activation

Phagocytes release inflammatory mediators to defense harmful stimuli upon bacterial invasion, however, excessive inflammatory reaction leads to tissue damage and manifestation of pathological states. Therefore, targeting on uncontrolled inflammation seems feasible to control numerous inflammation-associated diseases. Under the drug screening process of synthetic diphenylpyrazole derivatives, we discovered compound yuwen02f1 possesses anti-inflammatory effects in decreasing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNFα and IL-6, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as inhibiting migration of LPS-stimulated phagocytes. In addition, we observed that the molecular mechanism of yuwen02f1-mediated anti-inflammation is associated with decreasing phosphorylation of MAPK molecules including ERK1/2, JNK and p38, and attenuating translocation of p47(phox) and p67(phox) to the cell membrane. Yuwen02f1 also reverses IκBα degradation and attenuates the expression of NFκB-related downstream inducible enzymes like iNOS and COX-2. Furthermore, we found that yuwen02f1 attenuates some pathological syndromes of LPS-induced sepsis and adjuvant-induced arthritis in mice, as evidenced by decreasing the cytokine production, reversing thrombocytopenic syndrome, protecting the mice from tissue injury in septic mice, and attenuating paw edema in arthritic mice as well. These results suggest that yuwen02f1 is a potential anti-inflammatory agent for alleviating syndromes of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases as evidenced by attenuating the generation of cytokines and down-regulating the expression of iNOS and COX-2 through the blockade of ROS generation and NADPH oxidase, NFκB and MAPK activation pathways in LPS-stimulated phagocytes.

In vitro anti inflammatory activity of Aloe vera by down regulation of MMP-9 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells

AIM OF THE STUDY

The anti-inflammatory activity of Aloe vera was investigated through MMP inhibition studies. The effect of Aloe vera on MMP-9 inhibition was tested on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated from the heparinised venous blood by Ficoll Diatrizoate gradient centrifugation. The cell count and viability was determined using dye exclusion technique. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by MTT assay. Activation of MMP-9 was visualized by gelatin zymography. Inhibition of MMP-9 in the presence of aqueous extract of Aloe vera was detected by gelatin zymography and confirmed by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) showed significant inhibition in the activity of MMP-9, indicating the in vitro inhibitory effect of Aloe vera on MMP-9. Zymographic analysis and RT-PCR showed that it caused a significant reduction in the production of MMP-9 in a concentration dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

The inhibition of MMP-9 production in the cells was detected by gelatin zymography and was confirmed by RT-PCR.

Highly selective in-vivo imaging of tumor as an inflammation site by ROS detection using hydrocyanine-conjugated, functional nano-carriers

Previously, the optical imaging of chitosan-functionalized, Pluronic-based nano-carriers by Cy5.5 conjugation revealed a good tumor targeting characteristic of the nano-carriers in vivo [J. Control. Release, 147 (2010) 109-117]. However, in spite of the relatively strong signal from tumor site, they also showed strong fluorescence signals from other organs, especially liver. Thus, for the detection of pathological sites, the direct use of the Cy5.5-conjugated nano-carriers is limited due to significant background signals associated with non-specific delivery of the probes. To overcome this limitation, in this study, we prepared hydrocyanine-conjugated and chitosan-functionalized Pluronic-based nano-carriers (Hydrocyanine-NC) that can detect ROS in pathological sites. The reduction of cyanine to hydrocyanine of the nano-carriers resulted in complete disappearance of fluorescence emission, and the fluorescence could be recovered by ROS-induced re-oxidization. Hydrocyanine-NC could detect various ROS including superoxide anion (O(2)(-)) and hydroxyl radical (OH(-)) in a dose-dependent manner. Hydrocyanine-NC was also stable in serum-containing media and did not show acute cytotoxicity. Hydrocyanine-NC developed strong fluorescence by the intracellular ROS formation in LPS-stimulated macrophage cells in vitro. As an in-vivo inflammation site imaging, SCC7 tumor-bearing mice were optically monitored after the i.v. injection of the dye-conjugated nano-carriers. When non-reduced, cyanine-conjugated and chitosan-functionalized Pluronic-based nano-carriers (Cyanine-NC) were injected, strong fluorescence emission was observed from the abdominal area as well as from the tumor site, and it remained over 2days. In contrast, in the case of Hydrocyanine-NC, the initially very weak fluorescence emission from the abdominal area disappeared over time whereas the fluorescence emission from the tumor site was similar to that of Cyanine-NC. Therefore, the re-oxidation of Hydrocyanine-NC by ROS in vivo specifically eliminated the background signals from non-specific delivery of the probes, but it produced fluorescence emission strong enough to monitor the target inflammation site selectively.