Src and Syk are targeted to an anti-inflammatory ethanol extract of Aralia continentalis

A Comprehensive Review of Traditional Medicinal Uses, Geographical Distribution, Botanical Characterization, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology of Aralia continentalis Kitag

Aralia continentalis Kitag. (A. continentalis) holds significant medicinal value among the Aralia genus. It has traditionally been employed in ethnomedicine to address a wide range of conditions, including wind-cold-dampness arthralgia; rheumatic pain in the waist and lower extremities; lumbar muscular strain; injuries resulting from falls, fractures, contusions, and strains; headache; toothache; and abscesses. Modern pharmacological research has validated its therapeutic potential, encompassing anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, and cytotoxic properties, among other pharmacological effects. To compile comprehensive knowledge on A. continentalis, a rigorous literature search was undertaken utilizing databases like SciFinder, PubMed, and Web of Science. This review seeks to delve into the plant's traditional applications, geographical distribution, botanical characteristics, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. The objective is to lay a foundation and propose novel research directions for exploring the plant's potential applications. Currently, one hundred and fifty-nine compounds have been isolated and identified from A. continentalis, encompassing diterpenoids, steroids, triterpenoids, volatile components, phenolics, vitamins, trace elements, and other compounds. Notably, diterpenoids, steroids, triterpenoids, volatile components, and phenolics have exhibited pronounced pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activities. However, despite the extensive research conducted, further studies are imperative to unravel new components and mechanisms of action, necessitating more in-depth investigations. This comprehensive exploration could pave the way for advancing and harnessing the potential of A. continentalis.

Optimization of Extraction Conditions of Continentalic and Kaurenoic Acids from Aralia continentalis by HPLC/UV and Their Validation

Aralia continentalis (AC) is a perennial herb that has long been used as a traditional medicine for many diseases. Continentalic acid (CA) and kaurenoic acid (KA) are major diterpenoids in AC, which are known to exert various pharmacological activities. This study focuses on the optimization of the extraction of CA and KA from dried AC roots by evaluating the influence of different extraction conditions on their yield. Five extraction variables were examined: sample weight, solvent concentration, extraction time, solid matrix and the number of repeated extractions. The analytical method used in this study was also validated in terms of linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, precision and accuracy. The CA and KA yields were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. The results show that CA and KA were the highest when unpulverized samples (3.75 g) were subjected to a single extraction for 5 h using 50% ethanol (300 mL) as the solvent. These conditions are proposed for the optimization of the extraction of CA and KA from AC.

Aralia continentalis kitagawa Extract Attenuates the Fatigue Induced by Exhaustive Exercise through Inhibition of Oxidative Stress

The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-fatigue effects of Aralia continentalis kitagawa (AC) extract during exhaustive exercise of rats by forced swimming. Rats were subjected to forced swimming until exhausted after pre-treatment with AC extract for 21 days. Exhaustion time significantly increased in rats treated with AC extract. AC treatment also preserved blood homeostasis during fatigue due to exhaustive exercise. For fatigue-related serum biomarkers, AC extract significantly fail to decrease glucose and triglyceride (TG), but ameliorated increased lactate levels compared with levels in control rats. Metabolic acidosis, a major cause of fatigue, was effectively attenuated by AC extract, according to metabolic acidosis-related blood parameters. AC extract suppressed muscle injury and attenuated gastrocnemius muscle apoptotic responses due to exhaustive exercise. To investigate the mechanisms behind the AC extract anti-fatigue effect, we evaluated its effect on oxidative stress-related fatigue. We showed that pro-oxidants were inhibited, while antioxidants were preserved by AC extract treatment. Therefore, the anti-fatigue effect of AC extract was mediated by suppression of oxidative stress. Overall, the study demonstrated that AC extract effectively attenuates fatigue from exhaustive exercise through oxidative stress inhibition. AC extract, as an antioxidant, could be utilized as a therapeutic or preventive strategy against exhaustive exercise fatigue.

The ethanolic extract of Aralia continentalis ameliorates cognitive deficits via modifications of BDNF expression and anti-inflammatory effects in a rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder

Abstract

Background

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disease associated with that the experience of traumatic stress. The traumatic experience results in the development of a prolonged stress response that causes impaired memory function and increased inflammation in the hippocampus. Currently, antidepressants are the only approved therapy for PTSD. However, the efficacy of antidepressants in the treatment of PTSD is marginal. The ethanol extract of Aralia continentalis (AC) is traditionally used in oriental medicine, and has been showed to possess pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-atherosclerotic, and anti-diabetic effects. Nevertheless, the effects of AC on cognitive memory and its mechanism of action in PTSD remain unclear. Given the necessity of further treatment options for PTSD, we investigated the effect of AC on the spatial cognitive impairment caused by single prolonged stress (SPS) in a rat model of PTSD.

Methods

Male rats were treated with various intraperitoneal (i.p.) doses of AC for 21 consecutive days after inducing chronic stress with the SPS procedure.

Results

Cognitive impairment caused by SPS were inhibited after treatment with 100 mg/kg AC, as measured by the Morris water maze test and an object recognition test. Additionally, AC treatment significantly alleviated memory-related decreases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus. Our results suggest that AC significantly inhibited the cognitive deficits caused by SPS via increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6, in the rat brain.

Conclusions

AC reversed the behavioral impairments and inflammation triggered by SPS-derived traumatic stress and should be further evaluated as a potential therapeutic drug for PTSD.

The saponin DT-13 attenuates tumor necrosis factor-α-induced vascular inflammation associated with Src/NF-кB/MAPK pathway modulation

This study aimed to explore the effect of DT-13 (25(R,S)-ruscogenin- 1-O- [β-d-glucopyranosyl- (1→2)][β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)]-β -d- fucopyranoside) on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced vascular inflammation and the potential molecular mechanisms. In vitro, DT-13 suppressed TNF-α-induced adhesion and migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by inhibiting the expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). DT-13 markedly suppressed NF-кB p65 phosphorylation, and when NF-кB p65 was over-expressed, the inhibitory effect of DT-13 on adhesion molecular decreased. DT-13 also suppressed TNF-α induced luciferase activities of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 promoter containing NF-κB binding sites. Furthermore, DT-13 markedly suppressed p38 phosphorylation and Src degradation induced by TNF-α, whereas had no significant effect on ERK and JNK activation. In vivo, DT-13 at 4 mg/kg prevented vascular inflammation and the expression of adhesion molecules induced by TNF-α in mice. These findings suggest that DT-13 abrogates vascular inflammation by down-regulating adhesion molecules associated with modulating the NF-кB, p38MAPK, Src signaling pathways, and NF-κB binding site is at least one of the targets of DT-13. This study provides novel information regarding the mechanism by which DT-13 exerts its effects on vascular inflammation, which is important for the onset and progression of various diseases.

In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of Persicaria chinensis methanolic extract targeting Src/Syk/NF-κB

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGIC RELEVANCE

Persicaria chinensis L. (Polygonaceae) [also synonym as Polygonum chimnense L.] has been used as Chinese traditional medicine to treat ulcer, eczema, stomach ache, and various inflammatory skin diseases. Due to no molecular pharmacological evidence of this anti-inflammatory herbal plant, we investigated the inhibitory mechanisms and target proteins contributing to the anti-inflammatory responses of the plant by using its methanolic extract (Pc-ME).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages and a murine HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis model to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of Pc-ME. HPLC analysis was employed to identify potential active components of this extract. Molecular approaches including kinase assays, reporter gene assays, immunoprecipitation analysis, and overexpression of target enzymes were used to confirm target enzymes.

RESULTS

Pc-ME inhibited LPS-induced nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 release by RAW264.7 macrophages and ameliorated HCl/EtOH-induced gastric ulcers in mice. The nuclear translocation of NF-κB (p65 and p50) was suppressed by Pc-ME. Phosphorylation of Src and Syk, their kinase activities, and formation of the signaling complex of these proteins were repressed by Pc-ME. Phosphorylation of p85 and Akt induced by Src or Syk overexpression was blocked by Pc-ME. In the mouse gastritis model, orally administered Pc-ME suppressed the increased phosphorylation of IκBα, Αkt, Src, and Syk. Caffeic acid, kaempferol, and quercetin, identified as major anti-inflammatory components of Pc-ME by HPLC, displayed strong nitric oxide inhibitory activity in LPS-treated macrophages.

CONCLUSION

Pc-ME might play a pivotal ethnopharmacologic role as an anti-inflammatory herbal medicine by targeting Syk and Src kinases and their downstream transcription factor NF-κB.

(5-Hydroxy-4-oxo-4H-pyran-2-yl)methyl 6-hydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylate, a kojic acid derivative, inhibits inflammatory mediator production via the suppression of Syk/Src and NF-κB activation

Numerous derivatives of kojic acid have been synthesised to expand its immunopharmacological uses. Kojic acid is known to have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-melanogenesis effects. We found that (5-hydroxy-4-oxo-4H-pyran-2-yl)methyl 6-hydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylate (MHNC) strongly suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) in an initial screening experiment. In this study, we explored the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of MHNC and its inhibitory mechanisms using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells and HCl/EtOH-treated ICR mice. MHNC dose-dependently diminished the secretion of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin (PG)E2 in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells. This compound also suppressed the upregulation of mRNA levels for the inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 genes. Additionally, the transcriptional activation of these genes was inhibited by MHNC through the suppression of the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB subunits (p65 and p50), as determined by a luciferase reporter assay. Interestingly, MHNC treatment was found to suppress a series of upstream signalling cascades consisting of IκBα, AKT, PDK1, Src, and Syk for NF-κB activation. Furthermore, a direct enzyme assay with purified Src and Syk and luciferase assays using Src and Syk overexpression indicated that these enzymes were directly inhibited by MHNC. Finally, MHNC (20mg/kg) prevented inflammatory symptoms of the stomach in mice treated with HCl/EtOH by reducing phospho-IκBα levels. Taken together, our data suggest that MHNC may negatively modulate in vitro and in vivo inflammatory responses via the direct suppression of Syk/Src and NF-κB.

Syk and Src are major pharmacological targets of a Cerbera manghas methanol extract with kaempferol-based anti-inflammatory activity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cerbera manghas L. (Apocynaceae), a semi-mangrove medicinal plant distributed throughout tropical and subtropical countries, is traditionally known to possess analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-convulsant, cardiotonic, and hypotensive activity. In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of a methanol extract of the leaves of Cerbera manghas and the underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated to validate the ethnopharmacological use of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of Cerbera manghas methanol extract (Cm-ME) on the production of inflammatory mediators and the induction of HCl/EtOH-treated gastritis was explored using macrophages, HEK293 cells, and ICR mice. The molecular targets of this extract and potential active components in Cm-ME were also investigated.

RESULTS

Cm-ME inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. This extract also suppressed the expression of NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2. NF-κB-mediated enhancement of luciferase activity, nuclear translocation of p50 and p65, and phosphorylation of IκBα were markedly reduced by Cm-ME treatment. Direct enzyme assays, reporter gene assays, and immunoprecipitation analysis of kinases revealed Syk and Src as immunopharmacological targets of Cm-ME. Moreover, this extract strongly ameliorated the gastric symptoms induced by HCl/EtOH treatment of mice. Finally, HPLC analysis and pharmacological tests identified kaempferol as an active component of the extract with Src/Syk inhibitory activities.

CONCLUSION

Inhibition of Syk/Src and the NF-κB pathway by kaempferol could play a key role in the anti-inflammatory pharmacological action of Cerbera manghas.

Anti-inflammatory effects of prosapogenin III from the dried roots of Liriope platyphylla in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Liriope platyphylla has been reported to possess various biological activities, including anti-asthma, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetes, and neuriotogenic properties. In this study, we evaluated the effects of prosapogenin III isolated from the roots of L. platyphylla (Liriopis Tuber) on inflammatory responses in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. We investigated LPS-induced production/expression of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxigenase-2 (COX-2), and proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin (IL)-6 in RAW264.7 cells. We also performed Western blot analysis for determination of the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in LPS-stimulated cells. Treatment with prosapogenin III resulted in significant inhibition of NO production in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells through suppression of iNOS expression. Treatment with prosapogenin III resulted in a significant decrease in expressions of COX-2, IL-1β, and IL-6 through down-regulation of their mRNA or protein in LPS-stimulated cells. In addition, treatment with prosapogenin III resulted in potently inhibited phosphorylation of three MAPKs, including ERK1/2, p38, and JNK in LPS-stimulated cells. Treatment with prosapogenin III also resulted in suppression of the nuclear translocation of NF-κB in LPS-stimulated cells. These results indicate that prosapogenin III of Liriopis Tuber has anti-inflammatory effects in activated macrophages through inhibition of production of inflammatory mediators by blockade of the MAPK/NF-κB pathway.

Methanol extract of Evodia lepta displays Syk/Src-targeted anti-inflammatory activity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Evodia lepta (Spreng.) Merr., in the Rutaceae family, is a medicinal plant traditionally used to treat inflammatory symptoms such as in meningitis and hepatitis. However, no study has systematically investigated its anti-inflammatory activities including its molecular mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of a methanol extract from the roots Evodia lepta (El-ME) were evaluated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells producing nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and an HCl/ethanol-induced mouse gastritis model. Target molecules were identified by analyzing the activation of transcription factors and their upstream kinases.

RESULTS

El-ME reduced the production of NO and PGE2 from LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. El-ME also ameliorated the gastritis symptoms of EtOH/HCl-treated mice. The extract suppressed production of mRNA for the inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2; the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB; the phosphorylation of upstream kinases that activate NF-κB; and the kinase activities of Syk and Src.

CONCLUSION

The anti-inflammatory effects of El-ME might be due to its suppression of Syk/Src and NF-κB. Considering the in vitro and in vivo efficacy of El-ME, Evodia lepta could be developed into an anti-inflammatory herbal remedy.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of Rhodomyrtus tomentosa methanol extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk. is a representative Thai medicinal plant traditionally used in South Asian countries to relieve various inflammatory symptoms. However, no systematic studies on its anti-inflammatory activity and mechanisms have been reported.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of the methanol extract from the leaves of this plant (Rt-ME) on the production of inflammatory mediators [nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)] and the molecular mechanism of Rt-ME-mediated inhibition, including target enzymes, were studied with RAW264.7, peritoneal macrophage, and HEK293 cells. Additionally, the in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of this extract was evaluated with mouse gastritis and colitis models.

RESULTS

Rt-ME clearly inhibited the production of NO and PGE2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. According to RT-PCR, immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation analyses and a kinase assay with mRNA, whole cell extract, and nucleus lysates from RAW264.7 cells and mice, it was revealed that Rt-ME was capable of suppressing the activation of both nuclear factor (NF)-κB and activator protein (AP)-1 pathways by directly targeting Syk/Src and IRAK1/IRAK4.

CONCLUSION

Rt-ME could have anti-inflammatory properties by suppressing Syk/Src/NF-kB and IRAK1/IRAK4/AP-1 pathways and will be further developed as a herbal remedy for preventive and/or curative purposes in various inflammatory diseases.

Methanol extract of Hopea odorata suppresses inflammatory responses via the direct inhibition of multiple kinases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hopea odorata Roxb. (Dipterocarpaceae) is a representative Thai ethnopharmacological herbal plant used in the treatment of various inflammation-related diseases. In spite of its traditional use, systematic studies of its anti-inflammatory action have not been performed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The inhibitory activities of a Hopea odorata methanol extract (Ho-ME) on the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) in RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages were investigated. The effects of Ho-ME on the gastritis symptoms induced by HCl/EtOH and on ear oedemas induced by arachidonic acid were also examined. Furthermore, to identify the immunopharmacological targets of this extract, nuclear fractionation, a reporter gene assay, immunoprecipitation, immunoblot analysis, and a kinase assay were employed.

RESULTS

Ho-ME strongly inhibited the release of NO, PGE(2), and TNF-α in RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Ho-ME also clearly suppressed the gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as interferon (IFN)-β, interleukin (IL)-12, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1). By analysing the inhibited target molecules, Syk and Src were found to be suppressed in the inhibition of nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway. In addition, the observed downregulation of activator protein (AP)-1 and cAMP response element-binding (CREB) was due to the direct inhibition of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK)1 and IRAK4, which was also linked to the suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. In agreement with the in vitro observations, this extract also ameliorated the inflammatory symptoms in EtOH/HCl-induced gastritis and arachidonic acid-induced ear oedemas in mice.

CONCLUSION

Ho-ME has potential as a functional herbal remedy targeting Syk- and Src-mediated anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Future pre-clinical studies will be needed to investigate this possibility.